REESE  LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

^.^1  (Cession  No.   /A    /  /2  A     ■    Clijss  No. 


I 


BY   THE   SAME  AUTHOR. 


Groteiifelt's  Modern  Dairy  Practice.  American  Edition 
by  F.  W.  WoLL.  Second  Edition.  New  York,  1897. 
285  pp.     $2.00. 

A  Book  on  Silage.  Second  Edition.  Chicago,  111.,  1899. 
190  pp.      Paper,  50  cents  ;    cloth,  $1.00. 

Jointly  7vit/i  Pre/.  E.  H.  Farrington. 

Testing  Milk  and  its  Products.  Sixth  Edition.  Madi- 
son, Wis.,  1899.     256  pp.     $1.00, 


A 
HANDBOOK 


FOR 


FARMERS  AND  DAIRYMEN 


BY 

F.    W.    WOLL, 

Assistant  Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  University  of  Wisconsin, 
Chemist  to  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 


WITH    THE    ASSISTANCE    OF 

WELL-KNOWN    SPECIAlISTSo 


S^l^it^  KHustrattons. 


SECOND    ED  IT f  ON,    THOROUGHLY  REVISED. 

"  OF   THE  >"    \ 

UNIVERSITY  )) 

^  YORK  r" 
JOHN   WILEY    &    SONS. 
London:    CHAPMAN   &   HALL,   Limited. 
1900. 


Copyri;,'^ht,  1897  and  1900, 

BY 

F.  W.  WOLL. 

7  S-  >  V  ^ 


ROBERT   DRUMMOND,    PRINTER.    NEW   YORK. 


PREFACE„ 


The  effort  of  the  author  has  been  to  make  this  small 
volume  a  compendium  of  useful  information  on  farm  and 
dairy  topics.  Brief  discussions  on  subjects  of  importance 
and  interest  to  farmers  and  dairymen  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  useful  facts,  tables,  formulas,  receipts,  agricul- 
tural statistics,  etc.,  are  given  to  such  an  extent  as  the  plan 
of  the  work  permitted.  Valuable  data  scattered  through- 
out our  agricultural  literature,  in  the  publications  of  our 
experiment  stations  and  the  scientific  divisions  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  as  well  as  in 
other  public  documents,  and  in  farm  papers  and  standard 
works,  have  been  gathered  in  this  Handbook  and  arranged 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  them  easily  accessible  and 
convenient  for  reference  purposes. 

The  present  volume  is  founded  on  the  Dairy  and  Agri- 
cultural Calendars  previously  published  by  the  author. 
Much  new  material,  both  original  and  compiled,  has,  how- 
ever, been  included,  and  special  articles,  tables,  statistics, 
etc.,  have  been  verified  and  brought  up  to  date,  making 
the  book,  as  it  is  hoped,  of  considerable  value,  and  secur- 
ing for  it  as  favorable  a  reception  as  was  accorded  its  pre- 
decessors. 

The  author  takes  this  opportunity  of  thanking  the  follow- 
ing specialists  who  have  so  materially  increased  the  useful- 


IV  PREFACE. 

ness  of  the  book  by  comprehensive,  concise  contributions  on 
subjects  in  their  particular  lines  of  study  :  Professors  W. 
H.  Caldwell,  J.  A.  Craig,  John  W.  Decker,  L.  H.  Dewey,  F. 
H.  Farrington,  B.  E.  Fernow,  E.  S.  Goff,  A.  W.  Richter, 
H.  L.  Russell,  Thos.  Shaw,  Wm.  P.  Wheeler;  and  Messrs. 
John  Boyd*.  W.  G.  Clark,  M.D.C.,  N.  S.  Fish,  J.  D.  Fred- 
criksen,  H.  B.  Gurler,  S.  Hoxie,  J.  Noer,  M.D.,  J.  H. 
Pickrell,  H.  B.  Richards,  L.  P.  Sisson,  J.  McLain  Smith, 
and  C.  M.  Winslow. 

While  all  possible  care  in  the  preparation  of  the  manu- 
script and  in  the  proof-reading  of  the  book  has  been  taken, 
it  cannot  be  expected  that  errors  have  been  entirely  avoided, 
and  readers  discovering  any  such  will  confer  a  favor  by 
communicating  them  to  the  author. 

F.   W.   WOLL. 
Madison,  Wis.,  December,  1899. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART   I.     AGRICULTURE. 

I.  FEEDING    STUFFS. 

PAGE 

Composition  of  Feeding  Stuffs i 

Table  Showing  Average  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs  3 

Average  American  Digestion  Coefficients  of  Feeding  Stuffs 6 

Classification  of  Cattle  Foods 9 

Classification   of   Concentrated   Feed   Stuffs 9 

Feeding   Standards  for  Farm  Animals 10 

Rations   for   Dairy   Cows 12,  14 

Calculation  of  Components  of  Feed  Rations 12 

Weight  of  Concentrated  Feeding  Stuffs 16 

Food    Requirements   of   Farm    Animals 16 

Comparative  Value  of  Cattle   Foods 16,  17 

Prices  of  Cereals  per  Bushel  and  per  Ton 18 

Valuation   of  Feeding  Stuffs 18 

II.  FARM    ANIMALS. 

Characteristics  of  Breeds  of  Live  Stock.     Prof.  John  A.  Craig,  of 

Iowa  Agricultural   College 19 

Determination  of  the  Age  of  Farm  Animals  by  their  Teeth 26 

Cody  Temperature  of  Farm  Animals 28 

Duration  and  Frequency  of  7leat  in  Farm  Animals 28 

Gestation    Calendar 29 

Feeding  and  General  Care  of  Poultry.     Prof.  \Vm.  P.  Wheeler,  of 

N,  Y.   (Geneva)  Experiment  Station 31 

Synopsis  of  Breeds  of  Poultry 36 

Heredity.     Prof.  Thos.  Shaw,  of  Minnesota  Experiment  Station.  36 

III.     VETERINARY     SCIENCE. 

Common    Diseases    of    Farm    Animals.      W.    G.    Clark,    M.D.C., 

Marinette,    Wis 41 

Veterinary  Remedies  and  Doses.  W.  G.  Clark,  M.D.C.,  Mar- 
inette,   Wis 51 


VI  TABLE   OF   COXTENTS. 


PAGE 

Suppression  of  Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague 55 

Remedies  for  the  Horn-fly 57 

List  of   Disinfectants 58 

Rules   for  the   Disinfection   of   Stables 59 

Regulations  for  the  Government  of  Dairies  and  Dairy  Farms  in 

the  District  of  Columbia 59 

IV.     FIELD    CROPS. 

Quantity  of  Seed  Required  per  Acre 62 

Seed   Mixtures   for  Hay  and   Permanent   Pastures 63 

The   Weight   and   Average    Composition    of    Ordinary    Crops,    in 

Pounds   per   acre 66 

Soiling  Crops  Adapted  to  Northern  New  England  States 67 

Time  of  Planting  and  Feeding  Soiling  Crops 68 

Replacing  Winter-killed  Clover 63 

Capacity  of   Cylindrical   Silos 69 

Area  of  Feeding  Surface  in  Silos  Required  for  Different  Herds..  70 

Number  of  Plants  or  Hills  for  an  Acre  of  Ground 70,71 

Yield  of  a  Good  Crop  of  Farm  Products  per  Acre 71 

V.     HORTICULTURE. 

Usual  Distances  for  Planting  Vegetables 72 

Quantity  of  Seed  of  Vegetables  Required  to  Sovv^  an  Acre 73 

Distances  Apart   for   Fruit-trees,   Time   Required   to   Bear   Fruit, 

and    Longevity 74 

Average  Yields  per  Acre  of  Various  Crops 75 

Relation  of  Specific  Gravity,  Dry  Matter,  and  Starch  Content  of 

Potatoes 76 

Specific    Gravity,    Sugar    Content,    and    Boiling-point    of    Maple 

Sugar   77 

Weight  of  Sugar  Obtained  from  100  lbs.  of  Maple  Syrup 78 

Temperatures    to    which    Perishable    Goods    may    be    Subjected 

without   Injury 79 

Temperatures  Injurious  to   Plants 80 

Best  Temperatures  for  Preserving  Horticultural  Products 81 

The  Preservation  of  Soft  Fruits  for  Exhibition  Purposes 81 

VI.     SEEDS. 

Seed-testing  for  the  Farmer,   by  the  late   Gilbert   H.   Hicks,   of 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 84 

Standards  of  Purity  of  Seeds 86 

Table   of   Germination    Standards 89 

Number,  Weight,  Cost  of  Grass  Seeds,  and  Amount  to  Sow  per 

Acre    89 

Notes  on  the  Adaptability  and  Uses  of  Grasses  and  Clovers 91 

Vitality  of  Seeds,  if  Properly  Kept 93 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  Vll 

VII.     WEEDS. 

PAGE 

Table    of    Noxious    Weeds.      L.    11.    Dewey,    Assistant    Botanist 
U.    S.    Department   of   Agriculture 94 

VIII.     ENEMIES    OF    FARM    CROPS. 

Treatments    for    Injurious    Insects    and    Fungous    Diseases    of 
Plants.     Prof.   E.   S.   Goff,  of  Wisconsin   Experiment  Station.     99 

Spraying    Calendar loi 

A  Cheap  Orchard-spraying  Outfit 104 

Prevention  of  Oats-smut 105 

The    Formalin    Treatment   for   the    Prevention    of   the    Smuts    of 

Cereal  Grains  and  of  Potato  Scab \cj 

Fighting  the  Chinch-bug  by  Means  of  Kerosene  Emulsion loS 

IX.     FORESTRY. 

Forestry  for  Farmers.     Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  Director  N.  Y.  State 

College   of   Forestry 109 

Number  of  Trees  on  an  Acre 113 

Fuel  Value  and  Specific  Gravity  of  some  of  the  More  Important 

Woods  of  the  United  States 114 

Distance   Table   for   Tree-planting 116 

States  and  Territories  Observing  Arbor  Day,  with  Dates 117 

Forest-fire  Laws  in  the  United  States 118 

X.     MANURES    AND     FERTILIZERS. 

Manures    and    Fertilizers 122 

Approximate    Losses   of   Fertilizing   Materials   in    Different   Sys- 
tems  of   Farming 123 

Average  Chemical  Composition  of  American  Soils 124 

Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs 125 

Fertilizing  Constituents  of  Feeding  Stuffs  and  Farm  Products..  126 

Amount  of  Soil  Ingredients  Withdrawn  by  Various  Crops 128 

Amount  of   Fertilizing   Materials    Contained   in   Different    Crops 

Grown   on   One   Acre , 129 

Farmyard   IManure   Required  to   Replace  Ingredients  Abstracted 

from  the  Soil  by  an  Acre  of  Different  Crops 130 

Amount  and  Quality  of  Manure  Produced  by  Stock 130 

Composition,  Amount,  and  Value  of  Manure  Produced  by  Dif- 
ferent   Kinds    of    Farm   Animals 131 

Quantities  of  Nitrogen  and  Ash  Constituents  Voided  by  Animals  131 

Percentage  Composition  of  Commercial  Fertilizing  Materials 132 

Exhaustion   of   Fertilizers 134 

Equivalent   Quantities  of   Fertilizing   Materials 135 

Valuation  of  Manures  and   Fertilizers 136 


Vm  TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Trade   Values   of   Fertilizing    Ingredients   in    Raw    Materials   and 

Chemicals,     1899 137 

Conversion    Table    for    Calculating    Fertilizing    Ingredients 138 

XI.     AGRICULTURAL     ENGINEERING. 

Drainage:    Reasons  for  Tile-draining  Land 139 

Number  of  Rods  and  of  Tiles  per  Acre,  with  Drains  at  Various 

Distances    Apart 140 

Size  of  Tiles  Required  for  Draining  under  Average  Conditions  140 

Table  of  Size  of  Tile  Pipe  of   Main   Drain 141 

Rule  for  Obtaining  Size  of  Main  Pipes 141 

Number  of  12-inch   Pipes   Required  per  Acre  at   Different   Dis- 
tances between  the   Drains '141 

Number  of  Acres  which  a  Tile  of  a  Given   Diameter  and  per 

Cent  Grade  will  Drain  when  Used  as  an  Outlet 142 

Rise  of  the  Slope  for  100  Feet 143 

Quantity    of    Earth    Removed    per    Rod    of    Drains    of   Various 

Dimensions i_;3 

Rainfall    144 

Windmills:    Table  Showing  the  Force  and  Velocity  of  Wind 145 

Number  of  Square  Feet  and  Acres   Irrigated  by  Windmills   of 

Different    Sizes 145 

Table  Showing  Capacity  of  Windmills 146 

Table  Showing  Economy  of  Windmills 147 

Nominal    Horse-power    Required    for    the    Discharge    of    Given 

Quantities  of  Water  with  Lifts  of  10  and  20  ft 148 

Irrigation :     Definition   of   Technical   Terms 148 

Carrying   Capacity  of  Pipes 151 

Flow  of  Water  through   Straight   Pipes 151 

Power  Required  to  Raise  W^ater  from  Deep  Wells  by  Pumping  152 
Approximate  Cost  of  Different  Kinds  of  Pipe  used  for  Irriga- 
tion      152 

Average   Cost  per  Mile  of  Constructing   Irrigating  Canals  and 

Ditches 152 

Capacity  of  Windmills  and  Pumps 153 

The   California   Weir   Table 154 

Capacity  of  Cisterns  and  Tanks 154 

Capacity  of  Cisterns  in  Barrels,  per  Foot  in  Depth 155 

Roads:    Road-making 155 

Importance  of  Good   Roads 157 

Tractive   Force   Required  for  Carriages 157 

Fraction   of  the   Weight   of   a   Vehicle  and    Load   Required   to 

Move   Same   on   a   Level   Road 15S 

Tractive  Power  of  Horses  at   Different  Speeds 158 

Effect   of    Inclination    on    Tractive    Force 159 

Effects  of  Surface  on  Tractive  Force 160 


TABLE   OF   CO^J-TEXTS.  ix 


PAGE 

Cost  of  Hauling  Farm  Produce  in  the  United  States i6o 

Labor  Done  by  one  Horse  on  Canals,  Railroads,  and  Turnpikes  i6i 

Labor  Done  by  Team  in   Plowing i6i 

The   Effect   of   Wide   ^^'agon   Tires 162 

Average  Quantity  of  Stone  Required  to  Keep  Roads  in  Repair.  162 

Interior    Dimensions   of    Farm    Buildings 163 

Recipe    for    Whitewash 163 

Table  of  Cut  Nails 164 

XII.     HUMAN     FOODS. 

Composition  of  Human  Food  Materials 165,170 

Percentages  of  Nutrients,  Water,  and  Refuse  in  Food  Materials.   169 

Pecuniary  Economy  of  Food 172 

Amotmts  of  Nutrients  Furnished  for  25  Cents  in   Food  Materials  173 

Dietary    Standards 175 

Summary   of   American    Dietary    Studies 175 

Diagram   of  a   Good   Steer's   Carcass,   as   Cut   Up   and   Priced   in 

Eastern    Markets 176 

Diagrams  of  Cuts   of  Veal,   ]*Jutton,   and   Pork 177 

Live  Weight  and  Dressed  Weight  of  Steers  of  Different  Breeds 

and   Ages 178 

Proportion  of  Beef  to  the  Live  Weight  of  Cattle 17S 

Comparative   Results   Obtained   with    Fattening   Animals 179 

Live  Weight  and  Gains  Made  by  Swine 179 

Proportion  of  the  Various  Parts  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine 180 


PART    II.    DAIRYING. 
I.     DAIRY    COWS. 

On   the   Origin   and    Characteristics   of   the   Different    Breeds   of 

Dairy   Cattle 183 

I.  Jersey  Cattle.     By  the  Author 183 

II.  Guernsey  Cattle.     Prof  W.   H.    Caldwell,   Sec'y 186 

III.  Holstein-Friesian  Cattle.     S.   Hoxie,   Supt igo 

IV.  Ayrshires.     C.   M.   Winslow,   Sec'y 194 

V.  Shorthorns  as  Dairy  Cows.     J.  H.  Pickrell,  Sec'y 196 

VI.  Red  Polled  Cattle.    J.  McLain  Smith,  Sec'y 199 

VII.  Devon  Cattle.     L.   P.   Sisson,   Sec'y 202 

VIII.  Dutch  Belted  Cattle.     H.   B.   Richards,   Sec'y 204 

IX.  Brown-Swiss  Cattle.     N.   S.   Fish,   Sec'y 206 

Yield  of  Milk  and  Fat  from  Dairy  Cows 208 

Results   of  Tests  of   Dairy   Breeds   Conducted   by   American    Ex- 
periment   Stations 209 


X  TABLE    OF    CONTEXTS. 

PAGE 

Results   of   Breed    Tests    Conducted   at    World's    Columbian    Ex- 
position,  1893 210 

Average  Yields  of  Milk  and   Fat  by   Premium   Cows  at   Recent 

State    Fairs 211 

Highest  Record  for  Yield  of  Fat  Made  by  Any  Cow  in  a  Public 

Test  in   America 211 

Official  Milk  and  Butter  Records  of  Holstein,  Jersey,  Guernsey, 

and  Ayrshire  Cows 212 

Results  of  English   Milking  Trials 212 

English    Standards    for    Annual    Yield    of    Milk    of    the    Various 

Breeds 213 

Average  Yields  and  Composition  of  Milk  of  Different   Breeds..  213 
Average  Percentage  Composition  of  Milk  from  Diflferent  Breeds.  214 

Method  of  Judging  the  Value  of  Dairy  Cows 214 

Buying  and  Selling  Cows  by  Tests  of  their  Milk 215 

Fifty  Dairy  Rules 216 

II.     MILK. 

Percentage   Composition   of  Various   Kinds  of  Milk 220 

Average  Analyses  of  American  Samples  of  Dairy  Products 220 

Average  Composition  of  Cows'   Milk,  with  Variations 221 

Composition   of   Morning   and    Evening    Milk,    and   of   Morning, 

Noon,  and  Evening  Milk 221 

Composition  of  Different  Parts  of  th^  Same  Milking 221 

Calculation  of  Components  of  Cows'  INIilk 222 

Relation  of  Fat  to  Casein  and   Other  Solids 222 

Fertilizing  Ingredients  in  Dairy  Products 223 

Composition   of   Colostrum 223 

Composition  of  Ash  of  Cows'  Milk  and  Colostrum 223 

A  Chapter  on  Milk  Testing 224 

Table  for  Converting  N.   Y.   Bd.  of  Health  Lactometer  Degrees 

to   Ouevenne  Lactometer  Degrees 227 

Temperature   Correction   Table  for   Specific   Gravity   of   ]\Iilk 228 

Calculation  of  Total   Solids  of  Milk 230 

Table  for   Calculating  Solids  not  Fat  from  Specific  Gravity  and 

Fat    2^2 

Calculation  of  Specific  Gravity  of  Milk  Solids 233 

jMilk    Standards   in    Different    States,    Cities,   and    Countries 234 

Adulteration  of  Milk 2:^0 

Ranges  of  the  Variations  in  the  Composition  of  Herd  Milk 237 

Tables  for  Converting  Quarts  of  Milk  into  Pounds,  and  vice  versa  238 

III.     CREAM. 

Percentage  Composition  of  Cream  and  Other  Dairy  Products 239 

Yield  of  Cream  from  Milk  of  Different  Richness 240 

Talculation   of   Per   Cent   Fat  in   Cream 241 

Iland  and  Power  Cream-Separators  on  the  American  Market,  1900  242 


TABLE    OF    CONTEXTS.  XI 


PAGE 

Formulas  for  Finding  the  Fat  Content  of  Cream 244 

Handling   and    Care   of    Cream    Separators.      J.    D.    Frederiksen, 

Mgr.   Chr.  Hansen's  Laboratory,   Little  Falls,   N.  Y 245 

Per  Cent  Fat  in  Centrifugal  Skim-milk 246 

Loss  of  Butter  Caused  by  Inefficient  Skimming 251 

Relation    of    Fat    Content    of    Separator    Skim-milk    to    Speed    of 

Bowl,    Quantity  of   Milk   Separated,   and   Temperature   of  the 

Milk.     7. 252 

Steam-boiler  and  Engine  Management.     Prof.   A.   W.   Richter,  of 

the   L^niversity  of  Wisconsin 25:2 

On   the   Preservation   of   Milk   and   Cream   by   Heat.      Dr.    H.    L. 

Russell,   of   Wisconsin    Experiment    Station 256 

Directions  for  the  Sterilization  of  Milk 259 

Quantity  of  W^ater  or  Ice  Required  for  Cooling  Milk  or  Cream.  260 


IV.     BUTTER. 

Butter-making.     H.  B.  Curler,  ex-President  Illinois  State  Dairy- 
men's Association 261 

On  the  L^se  of  Pure  Cultures  in  Butter-  and  Cheese-making 263 

Boyd's  Process  of  Cream-ripening.     John  Boyd,  Chicago,  111 267 

The  Alkaline  Tablet  Test  of  Acidity  in  Milk  or   Cream.     Prof. 

E.   H.    Farrington,  of  Wisconsin   Dairy   School 270 

Directions    for    the    L^'se    of    Manns'    Test    for    Ascertaining    the 

Acidity   of   Cream 272 

Percentage    Composition    of    Butter 273 

Average     Chemical     Composition     of    Sweet    Cream-    and    Sour 

Cream-butter    273 

Analyses  of  American  Premium  Butters 274 

A..nalyses  of  Foreign  Samples  of  Butter 274 

Formula  for  Calculating  the  Yield  of  Butter 275 

Conversion    Factor    for    Calculating  .  Yield    of    Butter    from    the 

Yield  of  Butter  Fat 275 

Amount  of  Butter  Obtained  from  100  lbs.   of  Cream  of  Different 

Richness 275 

Yield  of  Butter   Corresponding  to   Yield   of   Bvitter-fat,   per   Day 
and   per    Week 275a 

100.J  — 100 

Value  of for  Sp.  Gr.  1.019  to  1.0399 275^ 

.y 

Relation    of    Fat    Content    to    Acidity    of    Skim-milk,    Milk,    and 

Cream    275^ 

Yield  of  Butter  from  Milk  of  '3iflfer-;nt  Richness 276 

Milk  Required  for  Making  One  Pound  of  Butter 277,278 

Distribution   of   Milk   Ingredients   in   Butter-m'aking 278 

Score  for  Judging   Butter 278 

English  Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Butter 279 


Xll  TABLE    OF    C02s TEXTS. 


PAGE 

Score  in  Judging  Proficiency  of  Butter-makers 279 

Analyses  of  American   Dairy   Salts 280 

V.     CHEESE. 

How  American  Cheese  is  Made.     Prof.  John  \V.  Decker,  of  Ohio 

Dairy    School 281 

A.  Factory  or  Cheddar  Cheese 281 

E.  Cheese  Alade  on  the  Farm 283 

Detecting   Bad    Milk.      Directions   for    Operating   the    Wisconsin 

Curd    Test 284 

Causes  of  Tainted   ]\Ii!k 284 

The   Fermentation    Test 286 

Determination  of  Humidity  in   Cheese- curing  Rooms 288 

Table   Showing   Relative   Humidity   of  the   Air 2S9 

Score  for  Judging  Cheese 291 

English   Scale  of   Points  for  Judging   Cheese 291 

Percentage   Composition  of  Cheese 292 

Varieties  and  Analyses  of  Cheese 292 

Distribution   of   Ingredients   in    Cheese-making 293 

Formulas  for   Finding   Yield  of   Cheddar   Cheese 293 

Yield  of  DifTerent  Kinds  of  Cheese  from  100  lbs.  of  Milk 294 

Average  Loss  of  American  Cheddar  Cheese  in  Curing 295 

Loss  in  Weight  of  Different  Kinds  of  Cheese  during  Curing 295 

Table    Showing    Relative    Cheese    Value    of    Milks    of    Different 

Richness 296 

Synopsis  of  ISIanufacture  of  Principal  Varieties  of  Cheese 298 

Quantities  of  Whey  to  be  Returned  to  Patrons 299 

VI.      MANAGEMENT    OF    CREAMERIES    AND    CHEESE 
FACTORIES. 

Directions    for    Taking    and    Preserving    Composite    Samples    of 

Milk  in  Creameries  and  Cheese  Factories 300 

Payment  for  Milk  at  Creameries  and  Cheese  Factories 302 

?Iethods  of  Payment  for  Milk  at  Cheese  and  Butter  Factories...  303 

Price  of  Milk  of  DifTerent  P.ichness  per  Hundred  Pounds 305 

Directions    for    Making    Dividends    in    Creameries    and    Cheese 

Factories    307 

Table  Showing  Average  Per  Cent  of  Fat  in  ^lilk 309 

Suggestions  to  Patrons  of  Cheese  Factories  and  Creameries 311 

By-laws  and   Rules  for   Co-operative  Creamery  Associations 313 

By-laws  and  Rules  for  Co-operative  Cheese  Factories 316 

Rules  for  Patrons  and  Instructions  to  Cream  or  Milk  Gatherers.  318 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS.  XllX 


PART    III.     GENERAL   TOPICS. 
I.     CONSTITUTIONS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATIONS. 

PAGE 

Constitution  and  By-laws  of  Agricultural   Clubs 3J1 

Constitution   of   Village-improvement   Societies 326 

Constitution    of   Road    Leagues 3j8 

IL     MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS    AND    TABLES. 

Explanation    of    Flag    Signals    Adopted    by    the    U.    S.    Weather 

Bureau     330 

List  of  Headquarters  of  State  Weather  Services 332 

Beneficial   and   Harmful   Hawks  and   Owls 332 

How   Patents  are   Issued S33 

Legal    Holidays 337 

What   to   do   in   Case   of   Accidents.     J.    Noer,    M.D.,    Stoughton, 

Wis 339 

Treatment  for   Poisoning 342 

Interest    Tables 344 

Wages  by  the  Week  and  the  Day 345 

Number  of  Days  between   Dates  within   Two   Years 346 

Domestic   and    Foreign    Postage 347 

Postal  and  Express   Money  Order   Rates 348 

III.     WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 

Customary  System  of  Weights  and  Measures 349 

Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures 350 

Conversion    of    U.    S.    Weights    and    Measures    to    Metric,    and 

vice  versa 351 

Kilograms  Converted  into  Pounds,  and  vice  versa 352 

Inches  Reduced  to  Decimals  of  a  Foot 352 

Ounces  Reduced  to  Decimals  of  a   Pound 352 

Weight  and  Measure  Conversion  Table 353 

Table  of   Reciprocals   of  Numbers 354 

Comparisons    of    Fahrenheit,     Centigrade,    and     Reaumur    Ther- 
mometer   Scales 355 

Government  Land  Measures 358 

To  Measure  Corn  on  the  Cob  in  Cribs 35:1 

Reckoning  of  Amount  and  Value  of  Hay 359 

Strength    of    Ropes 361 

Legal  Weights  of  Grain,  Seeds,  etc 362 

Specific   Gravity  of  Various  Substances 363 

Values  of  Foreign   Coins 365 

Money    Conversion    Table 366 


XIV  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

IV.     STATISTICAL    TABLES. 

PAGE 

United  States,  Area  and  Population,  1890 367 

Canada,  Area  and  Population,  1891 367 

Normal  Mean  Temperature  of  the  Air  in  the  United  States 36S 

Average  and  Actual  Date  of  Last  and  First  Killing  Frost 369 

Normal   Precipitation  in  the  United  States 371 

Meteorological    Data   for    Canada 372 

Comparison  of  Leading  Industries  in  the  United  States -^-jz 

Farming  Population  of  the  United  States 372 

Number    and    Classification    of    the    Agricultural    Population,    10 

Years  and  Over 373 

Number  of  Farms  in  the  United  States,  and  their  Value ziZ 

Statistics  Concerning  Farms  in  the  United  States 375 

Average  Agricultural  Wages  in  the  United  States  in  1893-95 376 

Areas    of    Appropriated,    Vacant,    and    Reserved    Lands    in    the 

United  States,   1898 373 

Value  of  Principal   Farm   Products,   1859-89 376 

Statistics  of  the  Principal  Crops  in  the  United  States  in  1895 377 

Area,    Product,    and    Value    of    Principal    Crops    in    the    United 

States,    1898 381 

The  Principal  Cereal  Products  of  the  United  States,  1850-1890 381 

Production  of  Various  Crops  in  Canada,  1891 381 

Average  Cost  per  Acre  of  P.aising  Wheat,  Corn,  and  Cotton  in 

the  United   States,   1893 382 

Average  Farm  Price  of  Agricultural  Products,  1890-1898 382 

Estimated   Number  of  Farm   Animals  on   Farms   and   Ranges   in 

the  United  States,  Price  per  Head,  and  Value,  January,  1896.  383 

Dairy  Statistics  for  the  United  States   (Eleventh   Census) 385 

Number  and  Value  of  Farm  Animals  in  the  United  States,  1870-95  387 

Number  of  Farm  Animals  in  Canada,  1891 387 

Number  of  Pure-bred  Cattle  in  the  United  States,  1898 387 

Dairy  Products  Produced  on  Farms,  according  to  the  Eleventh 

Census 388 

Statistics     of     Butter,     Cheese,     and     Condensed-milk     Factories 

(Eleventh    Census) 389 

Cheese,    Butter,    and    Condensed-milk    Factories    in    the    United 

States,  according  to  States 390 

Wool  Product  of  the  United  States,  1898 390 

Production  and  Consumption  of  Sugar  in  the  United  States,  1897  390 
Beet  Sugar  Production  in  the  L'nited  States  by  Factories,   1898-9.  391 

Sugar  Imports  for  the  Year  Ending  June  30,  1898 391 

Poultry  and  Egg  Product  of  the  United  States 392 

Importance  of  Apiarian  Industry  in  the  United  States 392 

Production  of  Honey  and  Beeswax  in  the  United  States,  accord- 
ing to  Census  Returns  of  1869,   1879,  and   1889 392 

Agricultural  Imports  and  Exports  in  the  United  States,  1897-98..  393 
Domestic  Exports  of  Butter  and  Cheese,   1870-98 39S 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  XV 


PAGE 

Exports  of  Dairy   Products  from  Canada,   1868-95 39'^ 

The  Fertilizer  Industry  of  the  United  States 3<. ) 

Imports  r.nd  Exports  of  Fertilizers  in   1896 393 

Imports   of  Fertilizers  and  Fertilizer  Materials,   1896 39; 

V.     DIRECTORY     OF     AGRICULTURAL     INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization  of  the  L'.  S.   Department  of  Agriculture 400 

Ministers  of  Agriculture  in  Canada 401 

American  Educational  Institutions  having  Courses  in  Agriculture  40J 
Statistics    of   Agricultural    Schools    and    Colleges    in   the    United 

States 404 

List  of  American  Veterinary  Colleges 406 

Dairy  Schools  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 407 

Agricultural    Experiment    Stations    in    the    United    States    and 

Canada    408 

Superintendents  of  Farmers'   Institutes    40a 

VI.     AGRICULTURAL     AND     DAIRY     LITERATURE. 

More   Important   Works   on   Dairying 410 

A  List  of  Sixty  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Books 412 

List  of  American  and  Foreign  Dairy  Papers 414 

The  Main  American  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Papers 416 

Index 421 


COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 


Chart  showing  Pounds  of  Water  and  of 
Digestible  Matter  in  100  lbs. 


Digestible 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohydrates 


Digestible 
Fat 


20      30     40      50     60      70 


Pasture  grass 
Oreen  clover 
Green  corn 
Com  silage 
Fodder  Corn 
Com  stalks 
Timothy  hay 
Red  Clover  hay 
Oat  straw 
Potatoes 
Mangel-ururzels 
Carrots 
Indian  Com 
Wheat 
Barley 
Oats 
Bye 

Pea  meal 
Com  dt  cob  meal 
Com  cob 
Wheat  bran 
Wheat  middlings 
Rice  bran 
Linseed  meal  O.P. 
Linseed  meal  X.P. 
Cotton  seed  meal 
Cotton  seed  hulls 
Gluten  meal 
Halt  sprouts 
Brewers^  grains 


20     30     iO     90     60      70     80     90    lOOTb^ 


PART  I.    AGRICULTURE. 


I.     FEEDING    STUFFS. 
COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

In  the  ordinary  chemical  analysis  of  feeding  stuffs  the 
following  constituents  are  determined,  viz.,  water,  ash,  pro- 
tein, crude  fiber,  nitrogen-free' extract,  ether  extract  (fat). 

Water  is  present  in  all  feeding  stuffs,  from  above  go  per 
cent  in  green  foods  and  some  kinds  of  roots,  to  below  lo  per 
cent  in  very  dry  hay  and  in  concentrated  food  stuffs. 

Asky  or  mineral  matter,  is  the  non-combustible  part  of 
plants,  and  goes  to  make  the  bones  of  the  animal,  or  to  sup- 
ply material  for  the  maintenance  of  other  parts  of  the  ani- 
mal body. 

Protein  is  the  name  of  a  large  group  of  substances,  all 
characterized  by  the  fact  that  they  contain  the  element  ni- 
trogen; hence  they  are  also  called  nitrogenous  substances, 
and  foods  rich  in  protein  are  spoken  of  as  nitrogenous  foods. 
The  protein  substances  supply  the  material  necessary  for  the 
formation  of  lean  meat,  ligaments,  tendons,  hair,  horns, 
hoofs,  etc.,  and  also  of  casein  of  the  milk.  Crude  protein 
includes  albuminoids  and  amides;  among  the  former  are 
found  white  of  tgg,  lean  meat,  curd  of  milk,  and  gluten; 
among  the  latter,  asparagin  and  other  crystallizable  and 
water-soluble  substances,  generally  speaking,  of  a  somewhat 
inferior  nutritive  value. 

Crude  Fiber  or  woody  fiber  is  the  framework  of  plants, 
forming  the  walls  of  their  cells  ;  it  is  usually  the  least 
digestible  portion  of  feeding  stuffs,  and  the  nutritive  value 
of  a  plant  is  decreased  as  its  crude  fiber  content  increases. 

Nitrogen-free  Extract  includes  starch,  sugar,  gums,  or- 
ganic acids,  etc.,  and  forms  a  most  important  and  usually  a 
very  large  part  of  cattle  foods.  Together  with  cellulose, 
nitrogen-free  extract  forms  the  group  of  bodies  called  carbo- 

l 


^  AGRICULTURE. 

hydrates.  A  general  name  for  carbohydrates  is  heat-produc' 
ing  substances,  as  against  flesh-fortning  substances,  i.e., 
nitrogenous  compounds,  the  names  indicating  the  main 
offices  of  the  substances  in  animal  nutrition. 

Ether  Extract,  or  crude  fat  {oil)  includes  a  group  of  com- 
pounds dissolved  out  by  ether  in  the  analysis  of  foods;  fat 
forms  the  main  part  of  the  extract;  most  feeding  stuils 
contain  only  a  small  quantity  of  fat,  but  this  component 
is  nevertheless  of  considerable  importance  in  the  feeding 
of  animals. 

Organic  Matter  signifies  the  combustible  portion  of  chemi- 
cally dry  feeding  stuffs,  i.e.,  all  the  components  given  in  the 
preceding  except  water  and  ash. 

Digestible  Components. — The  food  stuffs  used  in  the  feed- 
ing of  farm  animals  are  only  partly  of  direct  value  to  the 
animals,  the  portion  which  their  digestive  fluids  are  unable 
to  dissolve  being  voided  in  the  excrements.  The  digesti- 
bility of  fodders  has  been  determined  by  direct  experiments 
with  different  kinds  of  farm  animals,  in  this  country  or 
abroad.  The  digestion  coefficients  (see  pp.  6-S)  mean  the 
percentages  of  any  one  component  which  have  been  found 
to  be  digested  by  the  animals  experimented  on. 

Nutritive  Ratio  signifies  the  ratio  between  the  digestible 
nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  components  in  a  feeding 
stuff,  or  a  combination  of  such.  As  fat  has  been  found  to 
yield  about  2. 2  times  more  heat,  when  burned,  than  do  starch, 
sugar,  and  other  carbohydrates,  the  per  cent  of  digestible 
fat  in  a  food  is  multiplied  by  2.2  when  the  nutritive  ratio  is 
to  be  calculated;  the  product  is  added  to  the  per  cent  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  (nitrogen-free  extract  -{-  crude 
fiber),  and  this  sum  is  divided  by  the  per  cent  of  digestible 
protein.  (The  factor  2\  or  2\  is  sometimes  used  for  obtain- 
ing "the  starch  equivalent"  of  fat.) 

Example :  Clover  hay  contains  on  the  average  6. 5  per  cent 
digestible  protein,  34.9  per  cent  digestible  carbohydrates, 
ind  1.6  per  cent  digestible  fat  (see  following  table): 

1.6x2.2  =  3.52;   34.9  +  3.52  =  38.42;  38.42 -4- 6.5  =  s.g* 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  ;  5.9. 


FEEDING    STUFFS. 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AMERICAN 
FEEDING   STUFFS. 


Feeding  Stuffs. 


Greeti  Fodders  and 
Silage. 

Pasture  grass 

Green      fodder       corn 

(maize) 

Alfalfa  (lucern) 

Green  clover 

Alsike  clover,  in  bloom 

Rye  fodder 

Oat  fodder 

Sorghum  fodder 

Red  top,  in  bloom... 
Meadow       fescue,      in 

bloom 

Timothy 

Blue-grass 

Prickly  comfrey.. . . . 

Corn  silage 

Corn  silage,  Wis.  anal. 

Clover  silage 

Sorghum  silage  

Hay  and  Dry  Coarse 
Fodders. 

Fodder  corn  (maize), 
field  cured 

Same,  Wis.  analyses.. . . 

Corn  stalks  (stover) 
field  cured 

Hay  from  red  clover. 

Hay  from  mammoth 
clover 

Hay  f'm  alfalfa  (lucern) 

Hay  from  alsike  clover, 

Oat  hay 

Timothy  hay 

Hay  from  mixed  mea- 
dow grasses 

Hay  from  Hun.  grass.. 

Flax  hay 

Crab-grass  hay    

Marsh  hay 

Oat  straw 

Barley  strawt 

Wheat  straw 

Rye  straw 

Buckwheat  straw 

Pea  vinet  


Percentage  Composition.* 


80.0 

79-3 

71.8 

70.8 

74.8 

76.6 

62. 

79- 

64.8 

69.9 

61.6 

65. 

88.4 

79- 

73-6 

72.0 

76.1 


42.2 

29.0 


40 

'5-3 


B.4 
9-7 
8.9 
13.2 

16 
7-7 

14-3 

10.3 
7-9 
9.2 

14.2 
9.6 
7-1 
9.9 

13.6 


2.5 


7-4 
II. 6 

t. 
9- 

10.8 

II 
9 

1.6 
6.0 

7- 

8.4 

6.4 


14.3 


3-»  19-7 
12.3  24.8 


6.1  10.7I24.5 
7.4  T4.3  25 

8.3  12.8  25.6 

6.2  7.629.3 

4.4  5-9, 29-0 


6.4I29 
7-5|27 


4-037- 
3-5|36. 
3-438. 
3-ol38. 
5-2  43- 
9-o,35- 


9-7 

12.2 

12.3 
13-5 


36.5 


33 
42 
40 
45 
450 

4T 
49 -o 

30 

41.0 
46.3 
42.4 
390 
43-4 
46.6 
5-J 
33-7 


8.0 

•519-5 
•025.5 
.1  27 
•9  23-- 
.6I21.6 
•4I35-3 
•5  19-5 
.2132.9 


.828 
1.2  36 
I  3  32 

•31  9-4 
-8ii9 
.924 
1.2  25.4 
.322.8 


1-655 
1.766.8 


1.1:56 
3-378 

3-9  72 
2.2  84 
2.9  82 
2.984 
2.5  82 


Per  cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 


d 

0 

1 

Oh 

^i 

•a 

j3  rt 

?. 

rt-a 

U 

u 

2.6 

10.6 

1-3 

II. 8 

3-6 

11.4 

2-9 

14. 1 

2.7 

131 

2.1 

14.1 

2.7 

22.7 

.8 

12.7 

2-3 

20.5 

1-7 

17.8 

2.2 

23.0 

2.9 

19.2 

1.4 

4.6 

.8 

II. 6 

1-3 

14.0 

2.0 

135 

.6 

14.9 

2.6 

33-3 

3-7 

40.4 

2.0 

33-4 

b-5 

34-9 

5-7 

32.0 

10.^ 

41.4 

6.8 

^6.8 

4-3 

46.4 

3-0 

43-9 

3.6 

42.7 

4-5 

46.4 

7.2 

36.6 

2.2 

42.8 

3-5 

44.7 

1.6 

41.4 

.9 

41-3 

.8 

37-9 

.8 

42.7 

2-3 

37-7 

4-3 

32.3 

*  l-a'gely   from    Jenkins    and    Winton's    Compilation   of    Analyses   of 
Aintncan  Feeding  Stuffs.  t  Konig. 


AGKICULTUKE. 

AVERAGE   COMPOSITION   OF   A3IERICAN 
FEEDING   STVrFS.—ConizHued. 


Feeding  Stuffs. 


Roots  and  Tubers. 

Potatoes  

Sweet  potatoes 

Red  beets 

Sugar  beets 

Mangel-wurzels , 

Rutabagas 

Turnips  

CaiTcns 

Artichoke 

Grains  and  Flour  Mill 
Products. 

Corn  (maize)  

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Corn  cob    . .   

Corn  bran  (hulls) 

Oats 

Oat  shorts* 

Oat  feed 

Oat  hulls 

Oat  dust 

Barley 

Barley  screenings.. 

Wheat 

Wheat  bran— roller  pro- 
cess.   

Wheat  bran— old  pro- 
cess  

Wheat  shorts 

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  screenings. .... 

Low-grade  flour  ("red 
dog") 

Rye 

Rye  bran 

Rye  shorts 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  shorts 

Buckwheat  middlings.. 

Rice 

Rice  bran 

Rice  hulls 

Rice  polish 

Pea  meal 


Percentage  Composition. 


12   78.9 

6  71 -I 

9188.5 
1986.5 
9  90.9 
488.6 
3  90-5 
'  "1.6 


6|i2.7 
10 
5 
3 


i.o|   2.6 


5-6 

4.9 
4.6 
3-4 
2.9 

2.2 

1.9 
3.6 
5-9 
2.0 
3-0 
5-1 
51 
•4 
10. o 
13-2 
6.7 


».5 
2.4 
9.0 

11. 8 
16.2 
16.0 

3-3 
13-5 
12.4 
12.3 

11. 9 


14.9 
15.7 
12.5 


15.8 
10.6 


0.0 

2.4 

27.1 


6.6 
.30- 
12.7 

9-5 

7-5 

6. 


]'aX     (d 


173 
24.7 
8.0 
9.8 
5-5 
7-5 
6.2 
7.6 
15-9 


20.1 
27.9 
10.5 
12.6 

8.0 
10.2 

8.7 
10.4 
19-5 


Per  cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 


i6.i 
22.2 
7.6 
9-3 
48 
71 
5-5 

i6."8 


64.8 
56.3 
43-9 
59-8 
44-7 
45-7 
46.9 
40.1 
38.4 
66.1 
57-3 
64.9 

44.1 


47-5 
45-4 
47.2 
51. o 


13-561.3 
•365-5 
9.748.0 
1-9  45 


5-3 
1.6 
9.0 
18.0 


49.2 
30-4 
33-5 
33-4 
72.2 
45-1 
44-5 
56-4 
56.0 


*  Konig. 


PEKDIXG   STUPES. 

AVERAGE    C03IP0SITI0X    OF   AMERICAN 
FEEDIXG  STVFFS.—Cofiiinued. 


Feeding  Stuffs. 


Sorghum  seed 

Cow  pea 

Soja  bean 

Miscella}teous  Feeds. 

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'  grains,  wet  .. 
Brewers'  grains,  dried. 
Hominy  cliops  (meal).. 

Gluten  feed 

Cream  gluten  meal 

Chicago  gluten  meal. . . 

Corn  oil  cake 

Germ  meal  (corn  germ) 

Grano-gluten 

Starch  feed,  wet 

Cotton-seed  meal , 

Coiton-seed  hulls , 

Linseed  meal,  old   pro 

cess  

Linseed  meal,  new  pro 

cess 

Palm-nut  meal* 

Sugar-beet  leaves 

Prickly  comfrey 

Rape 

Pumpkins 

Apples* 

Apple  pomace 

Beet  molasses 

Beet  pulp 

Meat-scraps* 

Dried  blood* 

Skimmed  milk* 

Buttermilk* 

Whey* 


Percentage  Composition. 


5  £4-8 


5  9 
15  75 

5  7 
14  lo 

^\  8 

5|8 

3  9 
3i  9 

4  lo 

3'  5 
12  65 
37  8 
9 

21 


76.7 


9 
20 
34-0 


24.5 

5-4 
22.2 

9.0 
21.6 
32.8 
35-8 
24.8 

0.0 
31.0 

6.1 
42.4 

4.2 

32.9 


71.2 
84.4 

3-3 

4.0 

.9 


3 
:2.3 

3-7 
6.8 
1-7 
I  •  5 
6.7 
50 
1.4 
31 
5-6 
47-4 

8.9 

9-5 
24.0 
2.2 
1.6 
2.6 
1-7 
1-5 
3-9 


69.8 
55-7 
28 


47.0 
12.5 

47-9 

64 

49  6 

42 

46.8 

43.6 

64 

34- 

22. 

23. 

33- 


5 

3S-0 
4.4 
5.1 
8.4 

5-2 
2-5 
6.2 

59-5 

6.3 

•3 


Per  cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 


y  w   1  PL, 

C  ti  ;  I     u 

o    llu 


3.685.1'^  7. 
1.4  82.o"i8. 
16.9  84.5   29. 


•7 

.6  23 

•5,86, 

.7,90 

.1190 

.6,89 

88, 

86. 

91, 

34' 

84. 

87. 


85.: 


•4 
•3 
•3,=2- 

..68. 

••     9- 

■78s. 

.5!86. 
8. 
9- 
5- 


54-2 
17.9 


3-1: 
I.I 

15-9 


29.5 

39-6 

32.2 

44.1 

22.3 

42.6 

9.0 

6r.2 

26.7 

38.8 

s-s 

21.7 

36.9 

18. 1 

I.O 

1 

26.2 

1^8.3 

32.8 

27.2 

32.9 

16.0 

52.6 

1-7 

4.6 

1.4 

4.6 

1-5 

8.1 

1.0 

,S.8 

•3 

12.8 

1.0 

11.9 

9.1 

SQ.S 

.6 

7-3 

68.4 

•^ 

58.1 

3-1 

4-7 

3-9 

4.0 

.8 

4-7 

1.8 


2.7 
9.0 


:3-5 
2.3 


Konig. 


6  AGRICULTURE. 

AVERAGE  AMERICAN   DIGESTION  COEFFICIENTS 
OF  FEEDING   STUFFS 

As  Determined  by  American  Experiments.    (Jordan.) 


A.— Experiments  with  Ruminants. 
GREEN  FODDER  (fed  vvhen  green). 

Corn  (maize)  fodder — 

Whole  plant,  average  of  all  trials.   . 

Dent,  immature,  Pennsylvania 

in  milk,  Pennsylvania 

mature,  Pennsylvania 

Sorghum,  North  Carolina  and  Texas. 

Rye.  Pennsylvania 

Timothy  {Phleum  pratense),  Utah 

Hungarian  ^ra.s5  {Setaria  italica).  Me. 

Pasture  grass,  Pennsylvania 

Red  clover  {Tn'/oliutn  pratense). 

SILAGE. 

Corn  (maize)  silage,  whole  plant- 
Average  of  all  kinds 

Dent,  immature,  Maine,  New  York 

and  Pennsylvania 

Dent,  in  milk,  Pennsylvania. . . 
Flint  mature,  Maine  and  New  York. 

Soja-bean  silage 

DRIED  FODDERS  (fed  air-dry  or  partially 
so). 

Corn  (maize)  fodder,  whole  plant — 

Average  of  all  kinds  

Dent,  immature,  Maine  and  Penn... 
in  milk.  New  York  and  Penn.. 

mature,  Pennsylvania 

Flint,  mature,   Maine 

Sweet,  mature,  Maine 

Corn  (maize)  butts,  Maryland 

husks,  Maryland   

fodder,   tops   above    ear, 

Maryland 

pulled, Maryland, 
North  Carolina 
and  Texas. . .. 
stover,  Pennsylvania    .. 
Sorghum  fodder,  leaves,  N.  Carolina. 
Oat  straw,  Maine 


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"T'eedi-nTt  stuffs. 


AVERAGE   DIGESTION   COEFFICIENTS.— c^,///««^rf. 


A.— ExpRTS.  WITH  Ruminants — Cont. 

DRIED  FODDERS — Continued. 

Hay  from  grasses  named: 

Barley,  Maine 

Blue  joint  {Calatnagrostis  canaden- 
sis), Maine 

Cat-tail    millet    {Penniseium    spica- 

tum).  North  Carolina 

Hungarian    grass   {Setaria   italica), 

Maine 

Johnson  grass  {Sorghum  hale/>f7ise). 

North  Carolina 

Orchard  grass  {Dactylis  glomerata), 

Maine  and  New  York 

Redtop  {Agrostis  vulgar is\  Maine.. 
Timothy  (Phleum  pratense),  average 

of  all  kinds,  Maine  and  Utah 

ditto,  in  full  bloom,  Maine 

ditto,  late  cut,  Maine 

Wild-oat  grass  {Danthonia  spicata), 

Maine 

Witch-grass  {Tritictim  repens),  Me.. 

Pasture  grass,  Pennsylvania 

Mixed  grasses,  New  York  and  Penn. 
Hay  from  legumes  named: 

Alfalfa,  Colorado,   New  York,    and 

Utah 

Alsike  cXov&t  {Tri/oltujn  kybridum), 

Maine 

Crimson  clover  {Trifolium  incarna- 

turti).  North  Carolina  

Red     clover    {Trifoliu^n    pratense), 

Maine  and  Wisconsin 

White  clover  {Tri/oliuni  7-epe7is)^&. 

Cowpea  vines.  North  Carolina 

Soja-bean  vines,  North  Carolina 

MISCELLANEOUS   FODDERS. 

Buttercup  hay  (Ratiuficzclus  acris),  Me. 

Peanut-v-ine  hay,  North  Carolina 

Sorghum  bagasse.  North  Carolina 

White  weed,  white  daisy  (Chrysanthe- 
mum, leucantheinuni),  Maine 


Sugar-beets,  Maine 

Mangel-wurzels,  Maine. 


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8  AGRICULTURE. 

AVERAGE   DIGESTION   COEFFICIENTS.— o«/r««^^. 


A, — ExpRTS.  WITH  Ruminants— Cont. 

ROOTS— Continued. 

Rutabagas,  Maine  

Turnips  (strap-leaf),  Maine 

Potatoes,  Maine 

GKAiNS  (fed  whole  or  ground). 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  North  Carolina 

Corn  meal,  North  Carolina  and  N.  Y.. 

Cotton  seed,  raw.  North  Carolina 

roasted,  North  Carolina. . 
Pea  meal,  Maine 

BV- PRODUCTS, 

Brewers'  grains,  dried,  Massachusetts. 

Corn  cobs,  Massachusetts 

Cotton-seed  hulls,  N.  Car.  and  Texas.. 

meal,  N.  Car.  and  ^yis  — 

Gluten  feed  (Buffalo),  Massachusetts.. 

meal,  Maine 

Linseed  meal,  new  process.  Mass 

old  process.  Mass 

Malt  sprouts,  Wisconsin 

Wheat  bran, Maine  and  Massachusetts; 

middlings,  Maine  and  Mass 

B.— Experiments  with  Swine. 

GRAINS   AND   BY-PRODUCTS. 


Barley,  Minnesota  

Corn  (maize)  (whole  kernel),  Maine  and 

Minnesota 

meal,  Maine 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  Maine 

Peas,  Minnesota 

Wheat  shorts,  Minnesota 

Wheat  bran,  Minnesota 


X 

u 


FEEDING   STUFFS.  9 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   CATTLE    FOODS.    (Lindsey.) 


Coarse  Feeds. 


Low  in  protein. 

High  in  carbo- 
hydrates. 

50  to  65  per  cent! 
digestible. 


i  3 

Medium    in  Low   in 

protein.        ',     tein. 


pro 


Hays,  straws, 
corn  fodder, 
corn  stover, 
and  silage. 


Medium  in  High  in  car- 
car  boh  y-  bohydrates. 
drates.  [85    to   95   per 

55    to  65    per     cent  digest 
cent  digest-      ible, 
ible. 


Clovers, 
vetches,  pea 
and      bean 
fodders  and 
brans. 


Carrots,  pota- 
toes, sugar 
beets,  man- 
golds, tur- 
nips. 


Concentrated  Feeds. 


Low  in  pro 
tein. 

High  in  car- 
bohydrates. 

80  to  90  per 
cent  digest- 
ible. 


Wheat,  rye, 
barley,  oits, 
Indian  corn. 


High  in  pro- 
tein. 

Medium  in 
car  bohy- 
drates. 

80  to  90  per 
cent  digest- 
ible. 


Bean  and  pea 
meals,  glu- 
ten feeds 
and  meals, 
linseed 
meals  and 
cotton -seed 
meal. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   CONCENTRATED   FEED 
STUFFS. 


Very  rich  in 

protein  (above  40 

per  cent). 


Dried  blood. 
Meat  scraps. 
Cotton-seed  meal. 


Rich  in  protein 
(25-40  per  cent). 


Gluten  meal. 
Atlas  meal. 
Linseed  meal. 
Buckwheat      mid- 
dlings. 
Buckwheat  shorts 
Soja  bean. 
Grano-gluten. 


Fairly  rich  in 

protein  (12-25  P^r 

cent). 


Malt  sprouts. 
Dried    brewers' 

grains. 
Gluten  feed. 
Cow  pea. 
Pea  meal. 
Wheat  shorts. 
Rye  shorts. 
Oats  shorts. 
Wheat  middlings. 
Wheat  bran. 
Low-grade  flour. 


Poor  in  protein 

(below  12  per 

cent). 


Wheat. 

Barley. 

Oats. 

Rye. 

Corn. 

Rice  polish. 

Rice. 

Hominy  chops. 

Germ  meal. 


10 


AGRICULTURE. 


FEEDING   STANDARDS    FOR   FARM   ANIMALS. 

(Wolkf-Lehmann.) 
(Per  day  and  per  looo  lbs.  live  weight.) 


1.  Steers  at  rest  in  stall 

Steers  slightly  worked 

Steers  moderately  worked 

Steers  heavily  worked 

2.  Fattening  steers,  ist  period 

2d       "     

"        3d       "      

3.  Milch  cows,  daily  milk  yield,  11  lbs 

' 16.5     " 

"         "         "        "        "     27.6    " 

4.  Wool  sheep,  coarser  breeds , 

"         "        finer  breeds 

5.  Breeding  ewes,  with  lambs 

6.  Fattening  sheep,  ist  period 

2d        "      , 

7.  Horses  lightly  worked 

Horses  moderately  worked 

Horses  heavily  worked 

8.  Brood  sows,  with  pigs 

9.  Fattening  swine,  ist  period 

2d        "      

"         3d         "       

10.  Growing  cattle: 

Dairy  Breeds, 

Aver,  live  iveight 

Age,  Months.  per  head. 
2-3  154  lbs.... 

3-6  309    "  •••• 

6-12  507    "  .... 

12-18  705    "  .. .  . 

18-24  882    "  


lbs. 
18 


Nutritive 
(Digestible) 
Substances. 


c 

i 

If 

lbs. 

lbs. 

0.7 

8.0 

1.4 

10. 0 

2.0 

"•5 

2.8 

13.0 

2.5 

15.0 

3-0 

14. 5 

2.7 

15.0 

1.6 

10. 0 

2.0 

11. c 

2.5 

13.0 

3-3 

13.0 

1.2 

10.  s 

1-5 

12.0 

2.9 

15.0 

3-0 

15.0 

3.5 

14.5 

1-5 

9-5 

2.0 

II. 0 

2.5 

i3'3 

2-5 

15-5 

4-5 

25.0 

4.0 
2.7 

;i:: 

4.0 

13.0 

3.0 

12.8 

2.0 

12. S 

1.8 

12. S 

^•5 

12.0 

4;   K 

'A 


QKn 


lbs. 
8.9 
12.1 
14.7 
17.7 

18.7 
19.2 
19.4 


12.3 
14.0 

16.7 


12.2 
14.2 

19. 1 

19.2 
19.4 

12.0 
14-5 
17.7 

19.0 

31.2 
29.2 


15-7 
15-3 
14.2 


FEEDING    STUFFS. 


11 


FEEDING    STANDARDS    FOR    FARM    ANIMALS. 

{Coil  c  hided.) 


6 

Nutritive 
(Digestible) 
Substances. 

.2 

. 

c 

•Si 

0 

0 
1  ^ 

■el 

0 

0 

> 

3 

II.  Growing  cattle: 

lbs. 

lbs. 

bs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Bee/  Breeds. 

A  ver.  live  weight 
Age,  Months.             per  head. 

2-3                            165  lbs 

3-6                           331     ■' 

6-12                         551    '    

12--18                          750    " 

18-24                         937    " 

23 
24 
25 
24 

24 

4  s 
3-5 
2.5 
2  ( 

I.& 

13.0 
12  8 

C  V2 

2.5 
12.0 

2.0 
1-5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

20.0 
19.9 
17.4 
15-7 
14.8 

1:4.2 
1:4.7 
1:6.0 
1:6.8 
1:7.2 

12.  Growing  sheep: 

Wool  Breeds. 

4-6                             62  lbs 

6-8                            75     " 

8-11                          84     " 

"-15                          90    " 

15-20                          99     " 

25 

25 
23 

22 
22 

U 

2.1 

1.8 
1-5 

iS-4 
13.8 
11.5 
JI.2 
10.8 

0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

20.5 
18.0 
14.8 
14.0 
13.0 

1:5.0 
1:5.4 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:7.7 

13.  Growing  sheep: 

Mutton  Breeds. 

4-6                            66  lbs 

6-8                            84    " 

8-11                             lOI    "  

11-15                           121    "  

15-20                           154    " 

26 
26 
24 
23 
22 

4.4 
3-5 
3-0 
2.2 
2.0 

iS-5 
15.0 
14-3 
12.6 

12. 0 

0.9 
0.7 
OS 
05 
0.4 

22.1 
20.2 
18. 5 
i6.o 
15  0 

1:4.0 
1:4.8 
1:5.2 
1:6.3 
1:6.5 

14.  Growing  swine: 

Breeding  A  nitnals. 

2-3                             44  lbs 

3-5                             99    '; 

5-6                           121        

6-8                           176    " 

8-12                         265    "  

44 
35 
32 
28 
25 

7.6 
50 

U 

2.1 

28.0 
23.1 

15.3 

I.O 

0.8 
0.4 

0.3 
0.2 

38.0 
30.0 
26.0 
22  2 
17.9 

1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:7-5 

15.  Growing  fat  pigs: 

2-3                           44  lbs 

3-5                           no   1^ 

6-8                           198    "!.'.'.*!.'! 
8-12                         287    "  

44 
35 
33 
30 
26 

7.6 
5.0 
4-3 
3-6 
3-0 

28.0 
23.1 
22.3 

20.5 
18.3 

1.0 

0.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 

38.0 
30.0 
28.0 
25.1 
22.0 

1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.4 

12 


AGRICULTURE. 


RATIONS    FOR   DAIRY   COAVS. 


Woods  &  Phelps 

Well 

Wolff's  German  Stand'. 
Wolff- Lehman  n . . . . 


Orpr'nic 
Matter. 


lbs. 
25.0 
24-5 
24.0 


Digestible. 


Protein 


lbs. 

2-5 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


lbs. 
12.5 
13-3 
12.5 


Fat. 


lbs. 

.65 

•7 
•4 


Total. 


(See  page  10.) 


lbs. 
15.65 
16.2 
15-4 


Nut. 
Ratio. 


1:5.6 
1:6.9 
1:5.4 


CALCULATION   OF    COMPONENTS   OF   FEED 
RATIONS. 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  at  our  disposal  the  following 
common  feeding  stuffs  :  Fodder  corn,  clover  hay,  and  wheat 
bran,  and  that  we  want  to  know  how  much  is  required  to  keep  a 
milch  cow  of  1000  lbs.  live  weight  in  good  condition  and  to 
secure  a  maximum  yield  of  milk.  We  will  feed  14  lbs.  of 
fodder  corn,  6  lbs.  of  clover  hay,  and  10  lbs.  of  wheat  bran. 
According  to  the  table  these  quantities  contain  the  following 
number  of  pounds  of  digestible  matter  : 


Organic 
Matter. 

Digestible. 

Protein. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ether 
Extract. 

14  lbs.  of  field-cured  fodder  corn 

lbs. 
9-35 

lbs. 
•52 
.39 

1.26 

lbs. 
5.66 
2.09 

4.41 

lbs. 
•17 

10  lbs   wheat  bran 

.29 

Total 

22.30 

2.17 

12.16 

■56 

This  ration  falls  somewhat  short  of  the  feeding  standard  in 
total  organic  matter  and  digestible  substances.  To  bring  it 
nearer  to  the  standard,  we  add  a  couple  of  pounds  of  some  con- 
centrated feed.  In  selecting  the  foods  and  deciding  the  quan- 
tities to  be  given  in  each  case,  the  market  prices  of  the  feeds 
must  be  considered.  We  will  suppose  that  a  lot  of  corn-meal  is 
available  in  this  case,  and  will  add  two  pounds  of  this  feed  to 
the  above  ration. 


FEEDING    STUFFS. 


13 


Organic 
Matter. 

Digestible. 

Nutri- 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ether 
Extract 

tive 
Ratio. 

Ration  as  above 

lbs. 

22.30 
1-75 

lbs. 

2.17 

.14 

lbs. 

12.16 

1-25 

lbs. 
.08 

Total 

24.05 

24-5 
24.0 

2.31 
2.2 

2-5 

13-41 

13-3 
12.5 

.64 

•7 
.4 

1:6.4 

Proposed  American  feeding 
ration  for  milch  cows 

Wolff's  feeding  standard  tor 
milch  cows         

1:6.9 
1:5.4 

The  ration  now  corresponds  very  well  with  the  proposed 
American  feeding  ration;  there  is  a  small  deficit  of  organic 
matter  and  of  digestible  fat  ;  but  there  is  no  necessity  of  trying 
to  follow  any  standard  ration  blindly,  as  they  are  only  intended 
to  be  approximate  gauges  which  the  farmer  may  use  in  estimat- 
ing the  quantities  of  nutrients  required  by  farm  animals  in 
order  to  do  their  best,  cost  and  product  both  being  considered. 

In  constructing  rations  according  to  the  above  feeding 
standards,  several  points  must  be  considered  besides  the  chemi- 
cal composition  and  the  digestibility  of  the  feeding  stuffs  ;  the 
standards  cannot  be  followed  directly  without  regard  to  bulk 
and  other  properties  of  the  fodder ;  the  ration  must  not  be 
too  bulky,  and  still  must  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  rough- 
age to  keep  up  the  rumination  of  the  animals,  in  case  of  cows 
and  sheep,  and  to  secure  a  healthy  condition  of  the  animals 
generally.  The  local  market  prices  of  cattle  foods  are  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  determining  which  foods  to  buy  ;  the 
conditions  in  the  different  sections  of  our  great  continent  differ 
so  greatly  in  this  respect  that  no  generalizations  can  be  made. 
Generally  speaking,  nitrogenous  concentrated  feeds  are  the 
cheapest  feeds  in  the  South  and  the  East,  and  flour-mill, 
brewery,  and  starch-factory  refuse  feeds  the  cheapest  in  the 
Northwest. 


14  AGRICULTURE. 

PRACTICAL   RATIONS    FOR   DAIRY  COWS. 

Fed  by  16  American  Dairymen  Producing  325  lbs.  of 
Butter  or  more  per  Cow  per  Year.* 

1.  Colorado. — 30  lbs.  silage,  10  lbs.  alfalfa  hay,  10  lbs,  clover 
hay,  5  lbs.  wheat  bran,  2  lbs.  corn  meal. 

2.  Connecticut. — 35  lbs.  corn  silage,  10  lbs.  hay,  3  lbs.  wheat 
bran,  3  lbs.  corn  and  cob  meal,  2  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  2  lbs. 
Chicago  gluten  meal. 

3.  Illinois. — 7^1  lbs.  clover  hay,  7^  lbs.  timothy  hay,  12  lbs. 
corn  and  cob-meal,  8  lbs.  bran,  \\  lbs.  linseed  meal,  i^  lbs. 
cotton-seed  meal. 

4.  New  Jersey. — 24  lbs.  corn  silage,  8  lbs.  corn  meal,  2  lbs. 
wheat  bran,  4  lbs.  oats,  2  lbs.  oil  meal. 

5.  New  York. — 20  lbs.  hay,  2  lbs.  wheat  bran,  2  lbs.  cotton- 
seed meal,  2  lbs.  hominy  meal. 

6.  New  York. — 12  lbs.  timothy  hay,  i  lb.  wheat  bran,  i  lb. 
middlings,  2  lbs.  corn  meal,  2  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  40  lbs. 
skim-milk. 

7.  Neiv  York. — 42  lbs.  corn  silage,  2\  lbs.  clover  hay,  i\  lbs. 
timothy  hay,  8  lbs.  corn  and  cob  meal,  14  lbs.  dried  brewers* 
grains. 

8.  North  Carolina. — 30  lbs.  corn  silage,  8  lbs.  fodder  corn, 
3  lbs.  corn  meal,  3  lbs.  wheat  bran,  i  lb.  cotton-seed  meal. 

9.  Pennsylvania. — 24  lbs.  corn  fodder,  5.1  lb,  wheat  bran, 
5.1  lbs.  corn  meal,  3  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  2  lbs.  oil  meal. 

10.  Pennsylvania. — 10  lbs.  corn  fodder,  6  lbs.  hay,  3^  lbs. 
wheat  bran,  i\  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  \\  lbs.  oil  meal,  2\  lbs. 
corn  meal. 

11.  Texas. — 30  lbs,  corn  silage,  13^  lbs.  sorghum  hay,  1. 3  lbs. 
corn  meal,  2.6  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  2,2  lbs.  cotton-seed,  1,3  lbs. 
wheat  bran. 

12.  Vermont. — 30  lbs.  corn  silage,  10  lbs.  hay,  4.2  lbs.  corn 
meal,  4,2  lbs,  wheat  bran,  .8  lb.  linseed  meal. 

13.  West  Virginia. — 48  lbs,  corn  silage,  'i\  lbs,  corn  and  cob 
meal,  2\  lbs,  ground  wheat,  2^  lbs.  oats,  2^  lbs,  barley  meal. 


*  See  Woll,  "One  Hundred  American  Rations  for  Dairy  Cows,"  Bul- 
letin No.  38,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


FEEDING    STUFFS. 


15 


14.  Wisconsin. — 26  lbs.  corn  silage,  10  lbs.  clover  hay,  5  lbs. 
timothy  hay,  8  lbs.  wheat  middlings,  i^  lbs.  oil  meal. 

15.  Wisconsin. — 50  lbs.  corn  silage,  5  lbs.  sheaf  oats,  5  lbs. 
corn  fodder,  i  lb.  clover  hay,  i  lb.  millet,  2.7  lbs.  cotton-seed 
meal,  1.3  lbs.  oil  meal,  6  lbs.  wheat  bran. 

16.  Canada. — 40  lbs.  corn  silage,  7^  lbs.  clover  hay,  3  lbs. 
straw,  i^  lbs.  oats,  i^  lbs.  barley,  i^  lbs.  pea  meal,  3  lbs.  wheat 
bran,  i  lb.  cotton-seed  meal. 

The  preceding  rations  contain  approximately  the  following 
amounts  of  nutrients,  calculated  for  1000  lbs.  live  weight : 


Organic 
Matter. 

Digestible. 

No. 

Protein. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Total. 

Ratio. 

2 
3 

4 

1 
I 

9 
10 
II 
12 
13 
14 

lbs. 

31.09 

25.70 

22.09 

19.41 

26.19 

25 -73 

31-30 

20.38 

26.52 

2?!  58 
24.23 
22.37 
31.00 
23-79 
22.96 

lbs. 
2.70 
2.69 
2.37 
2.06 
2.36 
3-50 
3-37 
1.79 
2.53 
2.31 
2.21 
1.86 
1-54 
3.01 
2-73 
2.08 

lbs. 

15.78 

13.96 

12.06 

T1.71 

1378 

14.05 

16.31 

11.98 

15-74 

11.00 

12.31 

14.03 

1415 

16.02 

12.46 

12.17 

lbs. 
.80 
•97 

% 

.90 
.72 

1.30 
-75 

% 

.99 
.71 

lbs. 

19.28 
17.62 
15-18 
14.64 
16.93 
18.67 
20.99 

14-57 
19.17 
14.03 

15,82 
16.64 
16.41 
19.90 
16. i3 
14-96 

1 

bs. 

^5 
6.0 

5.8 

tl 
4-7 
5-7 
7-7 
7.0 

5-4 

t:l 

10.2 
6.0 

u 

16 


AGRICULTURE. 


WEIGHT  OF  CONCENTRATED    FEEDING   STUFFS. 

(Al.VOKD.) 


Wheat,  whole 

Cracked  corn 

Gluten  meal 

Cotton-seed  meal   . 

Corn  meal 

Corn  and  cob  meal 
Wheat  middlings   . 

Oats,  whole , 

Ground  oats 

Wheat  bran..   


Half  Bushel 
Weighs 

One 

Quart  Weighs 

Pounds. 

Pounds, 

Ounces  = 

Pound 

30 

14 

= 

1.83 

28 

12 

= 

1-75 

26 

8 

= 

1.50 

25i 

9 

= 

1..S6 

23i 

7 

= 

1-43 

22 

6 

= 

i..3a 

18 

2 

= 

113 

16 

0 

= 

1. 00 

12 

12 

= 

•75 

10 

10 

= 

■bS 

FOOD  REQUIREMENTS  OF  FAR3I  ANIMALS. 

It  is  generally  assumed  in  comparing  the  food  require- 
ments of  the  different  classes  of  farm  animals  that  one  cow 
at  pasture  will  eat  as  much,  or  seven-tenths  as  much,  daily 
as  a  full-grown  horse,  or  as  much  as  two  yearling  colts, 
heifers,  or  young  bulls,  or  as  three  to  five  calves,  or  four 
colts  taken  from  the  mare,  or  ten  to  twelve  sheep,  or  as 
twelve  to  twenty  three-months-old  lambs,  or  as  four  to  five 
swine.  It  may  be  figured  that  the  quantity  of  pasture  grass 
eaten  by  a  cow  per  day,  which  of  course  will  vary  with  the 
season  and  the  condition  of  the  pasture,  will  equal  25-30  lbs. 
of  good  meadow  hay  or  40  lbs.  hay  of  inferior  quality. 


C03IPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  CATTLE  FOODS. 

Comparing  concentrated  foods  with  coarse  feeds,  one 
pound  of  the  former  may  be  considered  a  food  unit;  the 
quantity  of  grass  eaten  by  one  cow  at  pasture  during  one 
day  is  assumed  equivalent  to  12  to  13  food  units  during 
the  early  part  of  the  summer,  and  to  4  food  units  in  the 
late  fall,  10  units  being  considered  an  average  figure. 

The  following  quantities  of  different  feeding  stuffs  are 
considered  approximately  equivalent,  as  determined  by 
European,  largely  Danish,  feeding  experience  (Schroll): 


FEEDING   STUFFS. 


17 


I  lb.  concentrated  feed  (cereals,  mill-refuse  feeds,  oil 
meals,  etc.)  =  2^  to  3  lbs.  of  good  meadow  hay  =  4  lbs.  of 
poorer  quality  hay  =  10  lbs.  rutabagas  =  12^  lbs.  turnips 
=  4  lbs.  potatoes  =  10  lbs.  green  fodder  =  6  lbs.  buttermilk 
=  6  lbs.  skim-milk  =  12  lbs.  whey  =  i  lb.  new  milk. 

COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  CATTLE  FOODS. 

(H^ECK-ER.) 

The  following  table  is  based  upon  the  percentages  of  di- 
gestible protein  in  different  feed  stuffs,  comparison  of  cost 
being  made  with  wheat  bran  as  a  basis  for  grain,  and  timothy 
hay  for  coarse  fodders.  The  figures  given  show  only  approx- 
imately the  comparative  value  of  the  different  food  stuffs,  as 
the  digestible  protein  content,  and  not  the  total  digestible 
matter  of  each  food  was  considered  in  calculating  the 
values.  Since,  however,  protein  is  the  most  important 
component  of  foods  bought,  carbohydrates  being,  as  a  rule, 
produced  in  abundant  quantities  in  the  crops  raised  on  the 
farm,  the  data  obtained  by  this  method  of  calculation  may 
serve  as  a  guide  in  estimating  the  comparative  money 
value  of  cattle  foods  offered  for  sale. 


Feed  Stuffs. 


Barley 

Indian  corn 

Corn  and  cob  meal., 

Millet  seed 

Oats   

Peas 

Rye  

Wlieat  shorts.  ....  . . 

Wheat 

Cotton-seed  meal. . . 
Linseed  meal         . .  . 


Value  per  Ton  or  Bushel  when 
Wheal  Bran  is  worth 


$9.00 

$10.00 

$12.00 

$16.00 
$0.30 

$20 .  00 

$0.16 

$0.18 

So. 22 

$0.36 

0  18 

o.2r 

0  24 

0.32 

0.42 

O.lO 

0.18 

0.22 

0.30 

0  36 

0.20 

0.22 

0.26 

0.34 

0.44 

0. 10 

0.12 

0.14 

0.18 

0.24 

0.40 
0.22 
7.20 

0.47 
0.24 
8.00 

0.56 

0.28 
9.60 

0.74 
12.80 

0.94 
0.48 
16.00 

0.24 

0.25 

0.30 

0.40 

0.50 

23-'4 

IQ.S6 

25.60 
22.08 

30.72 

26.50 

40.96 

35-32 

5T.20 
44.16 

Feed  Stuffs. 


Clover  hay.  red 

Corn  stover 

Fodder  corn 

Prairie  hay  (upland). 
Prairie  hay  ^m.xed). 
Sedg-e  grass 


Value  per  Ton  when  Timothy  is  worth 


$4- 50 

$6. 00 

S10.06 

$13.41 

2.b5 

353 

3-44 

4-59 

4.63 

6.17 

4-50 

6.00 

4-5° 

6.00 

$8.00  $10 


ii7.b8 
4.70 
6.12 
8.23 


$22.33 
6.88 
7-65 
10.29 
10.00 
10  00 


18 


AGRICULTURE. 


PRICES    OF  CEREALS    PER   BUSHEL    AND    PER 
TON. 


c^ 

c^ 

Name. 

0 

1^8 

Name. 

«13 

b^ 

Oh 

a,       •^ 

;S 

tc- 

- 

2.       - 

lbs. 

$ 

$ 

lbs. 

•fl! 

$ 

Wheat . 

60 

33-3 

.40 

•45 

•  75 
1. 00 

13-33 
1=5.00 
16.67 
20.00 
25.00 

33-33 

Oats 

32 

62.5 

.18 

20 

-25 
-30 

•35 
.50 

11.25 
12.50 
1.5.63 
18.75 
21.90 
3«-25 

Corn . . . 

56 

35.7 

•30 

•35 

10.71 
12.50 

Rye 

56 

35.7 

.40 
.;o 

M  28 
17.85 

.40 

14.28 

Barley 

48 

41.7 

.40 

16  68 

•45 

16.06 

-50 

20.83 

•50 

17-85 

.60 

25.02 

VALUATION   OF    FEEDING   STUFFS. 

The  commercial  value  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrates 
in  concentrated  feeding  stuffs  has  been  calculated  from  the 
average  composition  and  market  price  of  common  feeding 
stuffs  as  follows: 


/—Cost  of  one  pound  of—, 
Protein.        Fat.     Carbohydrates. 


In  Germany. .  •(1890)  3:  2:  i  (Konig,  Wolff.) 

'   Connecticut  (1888)  1.6  cts.  4.2  cts.    .96  cts.  (Jenkins.) 


(1890)1.4  2.9 

'  Delaware. .  .(1889)1.23  4.45 

'  Wisconsin.  .(i8qi)  1.5  3.6 

'  Indiana  ...  .(1891)  I. o  2.75 

'  New  Jersey. (189I)    .91  5.91 

'  Minnesota.  .(1893)3.1  3.1 

'  Vermont ..  ..(1895)2.02  —.19 


1.4 

•52 

•5 

.63 
1. 12 

.24 

.91 


(Penny.) 

(Woll.) 

(Huston.) 

(Voorhees.) 

(Hays.) 

(Hills  eiaL) 


FARM   ANIMALS.  19 


11.  FARM   ANIMALS. 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   BREEDS   OF   LIVE 
STOCK. 

By  Prof.  J.  A.  Craig,  of  Iowa  Agricultural  College. 

I.  Light  Horses. 

The  Thoroughbred. — Leading  characteristics:  running  speed 
(Salvator,  1:35^,  holds  the  world's  mile  record),  quality,  stam- 
ina, and  ambition.  Common  colors :  brown,  bay,  chestnut. 
Distinctive  features  :  refined  appearance,  lengthy  neck,  deep 
chest,  long  body,  straight  croup,  long  thighs  and  pasterns, 
dense  bone,  firm  muscle,  active  temperament,  rangy  type 
standing  16  hands.  Most  common  defects  :  light  bodies, 
lengthy  pasterns,  long  legs,  irritable  temperament.  Bred 
principally  for  racing,  which  has  given  them  endurance  and 
spirit.  They  are  suited  for  mating  with  mares  weighing  11  to 
12  cwt.,  with  the  object  of  producing  strong  drivers  or  stylish 
carriage  and  saddle  horses. 

The  Afjietican  Trotter. — Chief  characteristics  :  speed  at  the 
trotting  gait.  World's  record  for  one  mile  against  time  is  that 
of  Alix,  2:o3f.  The  type  of  the  leading  campaigners  is  that 
towards  which  the  trotter  is  tending;  it  is  that  of  a  horse  re- 
quired to  have  the  endurance,  ambition,  and  conformation  to 
maintain  trotting  speed.  Most  general  features:  intelligent 
heads,  light  necks,  low  deep  chests,  oblique  shoulders,  long 
forearm,  short  cannons,  round  body  rising  slightly  over  loin, 
long  croup  and  thighs,  low  hocks.  Most  common  defects: 
undersize,  deficiency  in  style,  finish,  and  substance,  Sphere; 
coach  or  carriage  horses,  roadsters,  and  trotters. 


20  AGRICULTURE. 

Cleveland  Bay.  —  Uniform  in  color,  being  bay  with  black 
points.  They  stand  at  least  i6  hands  and  are  horses  of  larger 
size  and  more  power  than  those  of  most  other  breeds  of  light 
horses.  Rough  joints,  coarse  bone,  and  deficiency  in  actior  are 
their  most  common  defects.  Their  size,  power,  and  evenness 
of  disposition  adapt  them  for  general  work  on  light  farms, 
but  owing  to  the  defects  mentioned  they  are  not  as  popular  for 
breeding  road  and  carriage  horses  as  those  of  other  breeds. 

French  Coach. — Smooth,  symmetrical,  and  generally  of  fine 
quality  ;  very  graceful  in  movement,  with  high  knee-action  and 
good  back-action.  Heads  intelligent  looking  ;  necks  graceful, 
bodies  snugly  ribbed,  and  quarters  muscular.  As  a  rule,  they 
are  striking  in  appearance,  being  upstanding  and  high-headed. 
Common  colors :  bay,  brown,  and  black.  Best  suited  for 
breeding  coach-horses  with  moderately  fast  and  graceful  action. 
Defects  :  coarseness  and  lack  of  prepotency  in  the  stallions  due 
to  their  mixed  breeding. 

Hackney,  —  The  typical  hackney  is  a  horse  of  extreme 
smoothness,  with  gracefully  curved  outlines.  The  head  is 
light,  neck  muscular  and  curved,  but  free  from  heaviness  ; 
shoulders  smooth  and  laid  well  back ;  body  circular,  compact, 
short ;  hips  smooth  ;  quarters  plump  with  muscle  ;  legs  short, 
with  tendons  clearly  defined.  Their  action  is  noted  for  its  grace- 
fulness and  stylishness,  being  very  high  in  the  forelegs,  and  the 
hock  movement  is  regular.  Common  colors  :  bay  and  brown. 
They  are  usually  about  15.3  hands.  Best  suited  for  production 
of  high-stepping  cab  and  coach  horses  for  city  driving. 

II.  Heavy  Horses. 

Clydesdale. — Usual  colors:  bay,  brown,  black,  or  chestnut  with 
white  markings.  The  head  is  intelligent  in  features,  but  some- 
times out  of  proportion  with  the  other  parts.  Shoulder  excep- 
tionally good  ;  being  sloping,  it  gives  them  a  free,  easy,  and 
long  stride  in  the  walk  or  trot  ;  arm  well-muscled,  and  legs 
clean  and  fiat,  with  the  fine  and  long  feather  springing  from 
the  edge  ;  pasterns  sloping,  easing  the  feet  from  concussion; 


FARM   AJTIMALS.  21 

feet  large  and  durable.  The  croup  is  muscular  and  the  quarters 
especially  heavily-muscled.  Their  combination  of  weight, 
quality,  and  action  is  exceptional  in  draught-horses. 

Shire. — The  best  type  is  low,  broad,  and  stout.  They  are 
heavily  built,  muscular,  with  heavy  bone  and  slow  movement. 
The  shoulder  is  usually  too  upright,  making  the  action  too 
short  and  stilted.  The  body  is  of  large  girth,  deep  and 
strongly  coupled,  with  broad,  short  back  and  heavily-muscled 
quarters.  Deficiencies  :  lack  of  quality,  sluggish  temperament, 
and  limited  action.  In  general  they  are  heavier  than  the 
Clydesdale,  though  there  is  little  difference  between  representa- 
tive animals.  The  best  type  is  suitable  for  breeding  the 
heaviest  class  of  draught-horses  adapted  to  slow  work  demand- 
ing strength  and  heavy  weight. 

Percheron.  —  Types  :  the  original  gray  in  color,  and  the 
modern  of  black  color.  Most  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
former  were  their  action,  style,  endurance,  and  strength.  They 
had  intelligent  heads,  prominent  chests,  round  bodies,  large 
bone,  inclined  to  roundness.  The  modern  type  is  shorter- 
legged,  more  compact  and  stouter,  but  lacking  the  size  of  the 
original.  The  Percheron's  excellencies  are  seen  in  their  active 
temperament,  intelligent  heads,  crested  neck,  deep  body,  and 
wide  croup.  Their  deficiencies  appear  in  defective  legs,  being 
light  or  round,  straight  pasterns,  feet  narrow  at  the  hoof,  heads 
and  quarters  lacking  muscle.  Best  type  adapted  for  breeding 
energetic,  quick-gaited,  strong  horses  suited  for  draught  work 
of  light  nature. 

Suffolk.— Color  uniform,  being  some  shade  of  chestnut. 
They  are  low-set,  short-legged,  deep-bodied,  muscular  horses, 
with  clean  bone  and  durable  feet ;  docile,  easy  keepers,  and 
steady  when  working.  General  deficiency:  a  lack  of  weight  due 
to  their  smaller  size  in  comparison  with  other  draught-horses. 
Suited  for  general  farm  labor  ;  they  are  not  the  highest-priced 
horses  on  the  market  owing  to  the  demand  for  heavier  weights. 


22  AGRICULTURE. 

III.  Beef  Cattle.* 

Short-horns. — The  three  family  types  are:  Bates,  Booth,  and 
Cruikshank.  Bates,  noted  for  style,  fine  heads,  clean  necks, 
straight  level  backs,  light  bone,  and  combination  of  milk  and 
beefing  qualities.  Booths  are  especially  excellent  in  girth,  wide 
backs,  lengthy  quarters,  deep  flesh,  and  beefing  qualities,  though 
lacking  in  finish  and  style.  Crtiikshanks,  noted  for  scale  ;  low, 
broad,  deep  forms,  heavy  flesh,  and  mossy  coats.  The  short- 
horn breed  is  specially  noted  for  beef  form,  early  maturity,  and 
thrift  under  a  variety  of  conditions.  Their  weakness  in  con- 
stitution and  sterility  is  traceable  to  in-and-in  breeding  and 
artificial  treatment.  Their  chief  utility  is  to  give  beef  form, 
quality,  and  rapid  fattening  tendencies  to  grades  for  stall  feed- 
ing. Some  families  possess  unequalled  combination  of  beefing 
and  milking  qualities. 

Aberdeen  Angus.  —  Characteristic  color,  black.  Head, 
hornless  ;  neck  free  from  loose  skin,  exceptionally  good 
shoulder-vein  ;  shoulder  oblique,  fitting  close  to  body  ;  ribs 
deep,  very  circular  ;  hips  moderately  far  apart,  smoothly 
curved  ;  rump  long,  level,  smooth  ;  thighs  muscular,  twist  low 
and  full,  quarters  long  and  rounded.  Type  :  cylindrical,  dis- 
tinguished for  smoothness,  symmetry  and  quality  ;  bone  light, 
hide  mellow,  and  coated  with  fine  black  hair.  They  are  pre- 
potent and  prolific.  Chief  utility,  production  of  beef  of  high 
quality. 

Hereford. — Most  popular  color,  dark  claret  or  cherry,  with 
white  face,  belly,  switch,  and  small  strip  of  white  on  neck  and 
over  shoulder.  Type:  low-set  and  broad;  heavy  in  fore- 
quarters,  with  low  heads  ;  full,  deep  chest  ;  hanging  dewlap, 
level  lack,  wide  thick  loin,  full  quarters  and  thin  thighs. 
Worst  deficiencies,  looseness  in  build  and  rough,  coarse  bone. 
They  are  strong-constitutioned,  active  rangers,  prepotent  and 
long-lived.  Being  active,  hardy,  and  good  feeders  they  make 
good  grazing  cattle,  and  on  that  account  have  been  popular  on 
ranches. 

Galloway,  —  Color   black,    no   white  admissible,  except   on 

*  For  description  of  breeds  of  dairy  cattle,  see  Part  II,  Dairying. 


FARM   ANIMALS.  23 

udder  or  below  underline.  Type:  thick,  close  to  ground,  and 
symmetrical  ;  hair  long,  wavy,  and  thick  ;  head  large,  horn- 
less, with  no  scurs  ;  neck  strong,  giving  a  burly  appearance 
to  forequarters  ;  shoulders  snug,  legs  short  and  heavy,  barrel 
round,  tight-ribbed  ;  quarter  long  and  smooth  ;  flesh  even  over 
all  parts;  hardiness  and  strength  of  constitution,  strong  feat- 
ures. Require  more  time  to  mature  and  yield  larger  percentage 
of  offal  than  most  other  breeds.  They  are  liked  as  ranch 
cattle,  as  they  are  hardy,  hornless,  and  yield  excellent  beef  and 
robes. 

IV.  Fine-wooled  Sheep. 

Merino. — The  two  types  include  those  wrinkled  and  those 
smooth  in  body.  They  are  chiefly  noted  for  the  heavy  weights 
of  fine  wool  that  they  shear.  The  fleece  is  dense,  even,  ex- 
tending over  all  regions.  The  wool  is  bright,  soft,  fine,  lustrous, 
and  pure.  They  are  hardy  and  strong  in  constitution,  of  a  quiet 
disposition,  and  do  well  in  large  flocks. 

V.  Mutton  Sheep. 

Southdown. — Symmetrical,  compact,  close  to  the  ground,  and 
of  fine  quality  ;  head  medium  size,  hornless  ;  forehead  and 
face  covered  with  wool,  ears  small,  face  brown  or  gray  tint, 
neck  short,  breast  broad,  back  and  loin  wide  and  straight,  body 
deep,  hips  wide,  twist  full,  fleece  dense,  and  medium  in  length 
and  fineness.  The  mutton  is  of  high  quality,  and  lambs  mature 
early.  They  represent  an  exceptional  combination  of  wool  and 
mutton  of  fine  quality. 

Shropshire. — Face  and  legs  dark  brown  in  color.  They  are 
symmetrical  and  stylish.  Rams  are  required  to  weigh  225  lbs. 
in  full  fleshi,  and  ewes  175  lbs.  Head  short,  covered  with  wool, 
hornless;  neck  well  attached,  full;  body  circular,  round  ribbed; 
quarters  lengthy,  inclined  to  narrowness  and  slackness.  The 
fleece  dense,  fibre  strong,  about  three  and  one  half  inches  in 
length.  The  ewes  are  prolific  and  kind  nurses.  They  combine 
quality  and  quantity  of  wool  and  mutton  in  a  high  degree,  and 
are  adapted  to  conditions  of  general  farming  and  rolling  land. 

Hampshire. — Color  of  face  dark  brown  or  black;  head  large, 
nose  prominent,  neck  regular,  taper  from   head  to  shoulder; 


24*  AGRICULTURE. 

strong-boned  ana  lengthy.  Especially  noted  for  early  develop- 
ment of  lambs.  They  are  vigorous  and  prepotent.  The  wool 
is  short,  dense,  strong,  and  slightly  coarse. 

Suffolk. — Faces  and  legs  deep  black  color.  They  are  large 
sheep  when  mature  ;  lengthy  and  straight  in  form.  Noted 
chiefly  for  prolificness  and  good  milking  and  nursing  qualities. 
A  large  percentage  of  lambs  are  reared  in  flocks  of  this  breed; 
wool  medium  in  quality  and  length. 

Oxford. — Face  either  brown  or  gray,  and  lengthy.  When 
mature  they  are  the  heaviest  of  the  Down  breeds,  being  larger  in 
size  and  heavier  in  bone.  Their  fleece  is  also  heavier  and  the 
fibre  longer,  coarser,  and  more  open  than  most  others.  Squarer 
in  form  than  the  Shropshires,  and  not  so  closely  covered  with 
wool.  Adapted  to  strong  land;  respond  readily  to  high  feeding. 

Leicester. — Face  bare  and  pure  white,  body  square,  straight, 
forequarters  exceptionally  full,  hindquarters  rounded  slightly. 
Offal  is  light,  bone  fine,  but  fat  too  plentiful.  The  Border 
type  is  stronger  boned,  heavier,  and  more  vigorous  than  the 
English.  The  Leicester  has  been  extensively  used  for  crossing 
on  grades.  Wool  lustrous,  five  or  six  inches  long,  soft,  but 
too  frequently  open  and  absent  on  the  belly. 

Cotswold. — Face  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray.  Form 
large,  square,  upstanding,  and  stylish.  A  tuft  of  wool  grows 
from  forehead;  fleece  open,  long,  and  heavily  yielding.  Body 
long,  level,  and  wide.  The  gray-faced  strain  is  considered 
hardier  than  the  white-faced.  The  popularity  of  the  breed  lies 
in  the  large  yield  of  wool  and  of  mutton,  though  the  quality  of 
both  is  deficient. 

Lincoln. — The  largest  of  the  long-wooled  breeds.  The  wool 
is  long  and  coarse,  and  especially  lustrous.  Square  in  form 
and,  when  mature,  very  heavy.     The  mutton  lacks  quality. 

Cheviot. — Face  bare,  white,  hornless;  wool  fine,  and  the 
fleece  dense  and  even.  Mutton  agreeably  flavored  and  fine- 
grained. They  are  hardy,  active,  prolific,  and  the  lambs  come 
active.  They  clip  about  four  pounds  of  fine  wool.  Adapted  to 
rough  and  high  pasturage. 

Dorset. — Face  white  ;  rams  and  ewes  horned.  Type  :  long, 
round-bodied,  and  compactly  built.  Wool  medium  in  length, 
fineness,  and  weight;  average  clip  6  pounds.     Chief  character- 


FARM   ANIMALS.  'Zo 

istics:  prolificness,  hardiness,  and  breeding  early,  so  as  to  drop 
lambs  in  winter. 

Highland. — Rams  and  ewes  horned,  face  and  legs  black  and 
white.  Low  and  blocky  in  type  ;  fleece  long,  coarse.  Their 
mutton  has  a  superior  flavor.  Mountain  breed  hardy,  active, 
and  very  strong  of  constitution. 

VI.  Swine. 

Berkshire. — Color  black,  white  on  face,  feet,  tip  of  tail.  Face 
short,  dished;  ears  sharp-pointed,  erect;  jaws  full,  back  broad, 
straight,  full  over  shoulder  ;  loin  thick,  level  ;  hams  excep- 
tionally full,  legs  short,  strong,  and  straight.  Sows  prolific, 
good  nurses.     Active  and  vigorous  in  temperament. 

Poland- China. — Color  dark,  spotted,  or  black;  head  small, 
slightly  dished;  ears  drooping,  girth  full,  ribs  well  sprung,  deep; 
hindquarters  lengthy,  though  inclined  to  be  drooping.  They 
fatten  readily,  reach  heavy  weights,  and  are  quiet-dispositioned. 

Yorkshire. — White  in  color;  separated  into  large,  middle,  and 
small  varieties.  The  first-mentioned,  are  strong-boned,  long- 
bodied,  and  deep-sided,  and  have  mixed  meat;  middle  or  im- 
proved type,  lighter  in  weight  and  bone,  with  smaller  quantity 
of  offal  ;  small  variety,  quick  in  maturing  and  compact  in 
form. 

Chester-  White. — White  in  color,  strong-boned,  vigorous,  and 
attain  to  very  heavy  weights,  though  slow  in  maturing.  Sows 
of  good  disposition  and  breeding  qualities. 

Duroc- Jerseys. — Deep,  cherry  red  in  color,  large  size,  good 
breeders,  and  liked  in  Southern  countries  because  of  ability  to 
withstand  heat. 

Victoria. — White  in  color  with  occasional  black  spots  on  skin; 
head  small,  face  slightly  dished  ;  skin  free  from  scurf  ;  flesh 
of  good  quality  and  evenly  laid  over  body.  Yearling  boars 
should  weigh  not  less  than  300  lbs. 

Tamworth. — Red  or  dark  brown  color  ;  snout  very  long, 
body  narrow,  exceptionally  deep  and  long  in  sides.  Their 
form  and  the  mixture  of  fat  and  lean  in  their  flesh  make  them 
a  special  bacon  hog. 

Essex. — Color  black;  type  :  small,  compact,  early  manuring, 
^nd  yielding  a  large  percentage  of  edible  meat. 


26  AGRICULTURE. 

DETERMINATION    OF    THE   AGE    OP    FARM 
ANIMALS   BY   THEIR   TEETH. 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Horse. — The  horse  has  24  temporary  teeth.  The  male 
has  40  permanent  teeth,  the  female  36  or  40.  The  smaller 
number  is  more  usual  in  females,  due  to  the  lack  of  the  tusks. 
The  temporary  teeth  consist  of  12  incisors  and  12  molars; 
the  4  center  front  teeth,  2  above  and  2  below,  are  called 
pinchers  ;  the  next  4  are  called  intermediate  or  lateral,  and 
the  next  4  corner  teeth.  The  permanent  teeth  consist  of  12 
incisors,  4  tusks,  and  24  molars.  The  dental  star  is  a 
yellowish  ring  appearing  next  the  enamel  on  the  table  or 
crown  of  the  tooth.  The  following  table  shows  approxi- 
mately the  changes  of  the  teeth  with  age  : 

3  to  10  days:  Temporary  pinchers  and  3  molars  cut. 

40  to  60  days  :   Temporary  intermediates  or  laterals  cut. 

6  to  9  months  :  Temporary  corner  teeth  cut. 

19  to  25  months  :  Leveling  of  temporary  corner  teeth. 
'^\  to  3  years:  Pinchers  replaced  by  permanent  teeth. 
3^  to  4  years  :  Intermediates  or  laterals  replaced. 

4  to  4I  years  :  Tusks  cut. 

4^  to  5  years  :  Corner  teeth  replaced. 

5  to  6  years  :   Leveling  of  lower  pinchers. 

7  years  :  Leveling  of  permanent  intermediates. 

8  years  :  Dental  star  and  notches  in  pinchers. 

9  years  :  Dental  star  in  intermediates. 

10  years  :   Dental  star  in  corner  teeth. 

Cattle. — Cattle  have  20  temporary  and  32  permanent  teeth. 
The  temporary  are  8  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw  and  12 
molars.  The  permanent  teeth  are  8  incisors  and  24  molars. 
Cattle  have  no  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  table  for 
cattle  is  as  follows  : 

At  birth  :  Temporary  incisors  appear. 

5  to  6  months  :  Teeth  decayed  on  border. 

6  to  7  months  :  Leveling  of  pinchers. 

12  months  :  Leveling  of  first  intermediates. 

15  months  :  Leveling  of  the  second  intermediates. 

j8  months  :  Intermediate  incisors  become  stumps. 


FARM   ANIMALS. 


27 


2  years  :   Permanent  pinchers  cut. 

2^  to  3  years  :   Permanent  first  intermediates  cut. 
3|  years  :  Second  intermediates  or  laterals  cut. 

4  years  :  Corner  teeth  replaced. 

5  to  6  years  :  Leveling  of  permanent  pinchers. 

7  years  :  Leveling  of  first  intermediates. 

8  years  :  Leveling  of  second  intermediates. 

9  years  :  Leveling  of  corner  teeth. 

10  to  12  years  :  Dental  star  in  pinchers  and  intermediates. 
13  years  :  Dental  star  in  corner  teeth. 

Sheep. — Sheep    have    20   temporary    and    32    permanent 
teeth.     The  table  for  changes  is  as  follows  : 

1  month  :  Milk  incisors  appear. 

3  months  :  Milk  incisors  decayed  on  border. 
15  months  :   Permanent  incisors  cut. 

2  years  :  First  permanent  intermediates  cut. 

33  months  :  Second  permanent  intermediates  cut. 
40  months  :  Corner  teeth  cut. 

Hogs. — Hogs  have  28  temporary  and  44  permanent  teeth. 
The  table  for  changes  is  as  follows  : 

At  birth  :  Temporary  corner  incisors  cut. 

I  to  2  months  :  Temporary  central  incisors  cut. 

3  months  :  Temporary  lateral  incisors  cut. 

9  to  12  months  :   Permanent  corner  incisors  cut. 
12  to  15  months  ;  Permanent  central  incisors  cut. 
18  to  20  months  :  Permanent  lateral  incisors  cut. 


28 


AGRICULTURE. 


BODY   TE]>fPERATURE    OF   FARM   ANI3IALiS. 


(DAiMMANN.) 


Degr.  F. 

Horse 99.5-101.3 

Cattle 100.4-103.1 

Sheep 101.3-105.8 


Deg.  F. 

Swine loi. 3-104.0 

Dog 99. 5-103. 1 


The  temperature  is  greater  after  exercise  than  after  rest, 
and  in  the  evening,  as  a  rule,  0.2-1.1°  F.  higher  than  in  the 
morning. 


DURATION   AND   FREQUENCY   OF  HEAT  IN 
FARM    ANIMALS.      (Wolff.) 


Mares 
Cows 
Ewes 
Sheep, 


In  Heat  for 


S-7  days 
2-3     " 
2-3       ' 
2-4     " 


If  not  lajpreg- 

nated,  Heat  will 

Recur  after 


3-4  weeks 

17-28  days 
9-12     " 


After  Coming  In, 

Heat  will 

Recur  after 


5-9    days 
21-28      '• 

7    months 
4-5  weeks* 


*  8-9  weeks  at  the  latest. 


FARM   ANIMALS. 


29 


GESTATION   CALENDAR. 

Average  Gestation  Period. 

Mares,  48}^  weeks  (340  days,  extremes  307  and  412  days). 


Cows, 

40H 

'       (283 

Ewes, 

22 

'       (150 

Sows, 

16 

'       (112 

240  311 
146  "  157 
109  "  143 


Time  of 

Mares, 

Cows, 

Evi^es, 

Sovtrs, 

Service. 

340  Days. 

283  Days. 

150  Days. 

112  Days. 

Jan.      I 

Dec.     6 

Oct.   10 

May   30 

April  22 

"        6 

"      II 

"      15 

June    4 

"      27 

"      II 

"      16 

"      20 

9 

May     2 

"      16 

"      21 

"      25 

14 

7 

"      21 

"      26 

"      30 

"       19 

12 

"      26 

"      31 

Nov.    4 

"       24 

':  ^7 

"      31 

Jan.      5 

9 

"       29 

"  22 

Feb.     5 

"      10 

"       14 

July     4 

"  27 

"      10 

"      15 

"       19 

9 

June     I 

''      15 

"      20 

24 

14 

6 

20 

"      25 

"      29 

"       19 

"      II 

"      25 

"      30 

Dec.     4 

"      24 

"      16 

Mar.     2 

Feb.     4 

9 

"      29 

"      21 

7 

9 

14 

Aug.    3 

"      26 

"      12 

"       14 

"       19 

"         8 

July      I 

''       »7 

''       19 

"       24 

"       13 

6 

22 

24 

'•       29 

-'       18 

"      II 

"      27 

Mar.     I 

Jan.      3 

"       23 

"      16 

April    I 

6 

8 

"       28 

"      21 

6 

"       II 

"      13 

Sept.    2 

"      26 

"       II 

"      16 

"       18 

7 

"      31 

"       16 

"      21 

"      23 

"       12 

Aug.     5 

"      21 

'•      26 

"      28 

"       17 

10 

"      26 

"      31 

Feb.     2 

"       22 

"       15 

May      I 

April    5 

7 

^"       27 

"      20 

"        6 

10 

"       12 

Oct.     2 

"      25 

"       II 

"       15 

"       17 

7 

"      30 

"       16 

"      20 

"      22 

"       12 

Sept.    4 

"       21 

"      25 

"      27 

"       17 

9 

*'       26 

*'      30 

Mar.     4 

"       22 

14 

"       31 

May     5 

9 

"       '' 

"       19 

June     5 

"      10 

"       14 

Nov.     I 

"       24 

"       10 

"      15 

"       19 

6 

"       29 

"       15 

"      20 

"       24 

"       II 

Oct.      4 

'        20 

'1      ^5 

"  .,  29 

"      16 

9 

''      25 

30 

April    3 

"      21 

14 

30 

June     4 

8 

"      26 

"       19 

July    5 

"        9 

"       ^^3 

Dec.     I 

"      24 

"     10 

"       14 

"       18 

6 

"      29 

"     15 

"       19 

"       23 

"       II 

Nov.    3 

"    20 

24 

"       28 

"       16 

8 

30 


AGRICULTURE. 


GESTATION    CALENDAR.— ( Continued.) 


Time 

of 

Mares, 

Cows, 

Ewes, 

Sows, 

Serv 

ce. 

340  Days. 

283  Days. 

150  Days. 

112  Days. 

July 

25 

June  29 

May     3 

Dec.  21 

Nov.  13 

30 

July      4 

"        8 

'•      26 

"       18 

Aug. 

4 

"        9 

"       13 

/'      31 

"      23 

" 

9 

14 

"      18 

Jan.      5 

"      28 

" 

14 

"       19 

"      23 

10 

Dec.     3 

tt 

»9 

"      24 

"      28 

"      15 

8 

(( 

24 

"      29 

June     2 

"      20 

"       13 

*' 

29 

Aug.    3 

7 

"      25 

•'       18 

Sept. 

3 

8 

"      12 

"      30 

"       23 

it 

8 

"       13 

"      17 

Feb.     4 

"       28 

" 

13 

"       18 

"      22 

9 

Jan.      2 

tt 

18 

"       23 

"      27 

"      14 

7 

" 

23 

"       28 

July     2 

"       19 

"       12 

" 

28 

Sept.    2 

7 

"      24 

"       17 

Oct. 

3 

"        7 

"       12 

Mar.     1 

"       22 

*' 

8 

"      12 

"       17 

6 

"       27 

" 

JO 

"      17 

"       22 

"       II 

Feb.     I 

i( 

18 

22 

"       27 

"       16 

6 

" 

23 

"      27 

Aug.     I 

21 

"       II 

ti 

28 

Oct.     2 

6 

"      26 

"       16 

Nov. 

2 

"       7 

II 

"      31 

"      21 

" 

7 

"      12 

"       16 

April    5 

"      26 

" 

12 

"      17 

"       21 

"       10 

Mar.     3 

" 

17 

"      22 

"       26 

"       15 

''        8 

" 

22 

'■      27 

"       31 

'■      20 

"       13 

" 

28 

Nov.     r 

Sept.    5 

"      25 

"      18 

Dec. 

2 

6 

"       10 

"      30 

"      23 

" 

7 

"       II 

15 

May     5 

"      28 

" 

12 

"       16 

"      20 

'*       10 

April    2 

" 

i-- 

"       21 

•'      25 

"       15 

7 

" 

2J 

"      26 

30 

"      20 

12 

" 

27 

Dec.     1 

Oct.      5 

"      25 

"      17 

t( 

31 

5 

9 

"      29 

"      21 

FARM   ANIMALS.  31 

FEEDING   AND   GENERAL,   CARE   OF  POULTRY. 

By  Prof.  Wm.  P.  Wheeler,  of  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Experiment  Station. 

Of  the  kinds  of  land  birds  and  of  water  fowls  under  do- 
mestication the  common  "barnyard"  fowls,  of  one  general 
type,  but  of  countless  individual  variations,  and  their  thor- 
oughbred varieties,  are  those  usually  thought  of  when  the 
subject  of  poultry  is  mentioned,  and  these  are  the  fowls  of 
most  general  practical  interest.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
common  fowl,  although  so  widely  bred,  and  for  so  long,  in 
Europe  and  America  has  no  distinctive  English  name. 

Ducks,  turkeys,  and  geese  constitute  greater  or  smaller 
portions  of  the  market  poultry  according  to  the  particular 
locality  and  season,  but  the  common  fowl,  besides  produc- 
ing most  of  the  table  poultry,  is  almost  alone  called  upon 
for  the  egg  supply. 

The  relative  prices  of  eggs  and  market  poultry,  the 
proximity  of  markets,  as  well  as  the  prices  of  foods,  deter- 
mine the  relative  profit  in  keeping  larger  or  smaller  breeds, 
even  with  eggs  as  the  special  object.  The  meat  value  of 
every  fowl  is  of  consideration  sooner  or  later,  and  while 
the  smaller  hens  will  produce  eggs  cheaper,  the  greater 
net  profit  from  hatching  to  market  per  hen  may  be  with 
the  larger  breed. 

Most  of  the  thoroughbred  varieties  have  their  character- 
istics fairly  established,  so  that  it  is  better  business  policy 
to  employ  them  rather  than  the  uncertain  mongrels,  which, 
besides  their  unknown  capabilities,  are  not  less  likely  to 
suffer  from  long  and  careless  inbreeding.  The  fancier  who 
is  fitted  by  judgment  and  experience  to  inbreed  his  stock 
closely  will  know  how  far  he  can  go  with  safety;  but  one 
who  finds  it  necessary  to  inquire  about  the  advisability  of 
inbreeding  had  better  not  attempt  any. 

Among  the  breeds  that  lay  white-shelled  eggs.  Ham- 
burgs,  when  of  vigorous  ancestry,  probably  are  the  most 
prolific.  They  certainly  are  exceptional  layers,  although 
the  size  of  the  egg  is  small.  The  Hamburg  varieties  pos- 
sess in  unusual  degree  the  thoroughbred  characteristics. 
Occasional  complaints  have  been  made  in  recent  years  con- 
cerning their  stamina. 


32  AGRICULTURE. 

For  egg  production  the  Leghorns  are  typical  fowls,  and 
where  white-shelled  eggs  are  wanted  the  Leghorn  varieties 
are  more  widely  kept  than  any  others. 

The  Minorcas,  other  members  of  the  Mediterranean  class, 
excel  the  Leghorns  in  size  of  eggs,  but  do  not  equal  them 
in  number. 

Some  strains  and  varieties  of  Pit  Games  are  not  far  from 
the  Leghorn  in  prolificacy. 

Of  the  French  breeds  the  Houdan  is  most  widely  bred 
in  this  country,  and  for  such  an  excellent  table  fowl,  is  an 
exceptional  layer  of  large  white  eggs. 

The  Polish,  often  wonderful  layers,  have  sometimes 
suffered  in  vigor  because  of  their  beauty,  which  admirers 
hesitate  to  risk  marring  by  introduction   of  distant  blood. 

Of  the  Asiatics,  which  lay  brown-shelled  eggs,  the  Lang- 
shan  is  high  in  favor  with  practical  poultrymen.  The 
Brahma,  the  largest  of  the  thoroughbreds,  also  ranks  high 
and  lays  large  eggs.  Those  strains,  however,  bred  for 
early  laying  are  usually  much  inferior  in  size  to  the  stand- 
ard birds.  The  Cochin  varieties  are  more  particularly  the 
pride  of  the  fancier  than  of  the  farmer. 

Of  the  American  breeds  the  Plymouth  Rock  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  popular.  Its  type  of  plumage  pos- 
sesses an  unusual  strength,  even  in  blood  much  diluted, 
and  faint  reflections  of  the  blue  barring  are  seen  in  very 
distant  relatives  of  the  thoroughbred.  The  perfect  mark- 
ings of  the  showroom  bird  are,  however,  quickly  lost.  The 
American  breeds  lay  brown-shelled  eggs.  Different  flocks 
vary  as  much  as  the  breeds  or  varieties  in  productiveness. 

Many  other  breeds  and  varieties  recognized  by  the 
American  Poultry  Association  are  of  considerable  economic 
value,  but  are  less  commonly  kept. 

In  feeding  most  farm  animals  the  usual  purpose  is  only 
to  secure  meat,  wool,  milk,  or  work,  and  not  always  is  con- 
sideration necessarily  given  to  the  breeding  condition  and 
the  breeding  season.  When  poultry  is  kept  for  other  than 
fancy  purposes,  the  life  of  the  individual  fowl  is  so  short 
that  there  is  not  only  an  annual  necessity  of  growing 
young   birds  with   several  more   or  less  complete  sets  of 


FARM   ANIMALS.  33 

plumage,  but  egg  production  virtually  implies  a  continual 
breeding  condition,  for  the  ultimate  constituents  of  the  egg 
are,  with  the  exception  of  the  amount  obtained  from  the 
air,  all  that  are  combined  in  the  living  chick. 

The  body  of  a  Leghorn  pullet,  about  nine  months  old,  in 
active  laying,  contains  about  55.4  per  cent  of  water,  21.2 
per  cent  of  different  nitrogenous  constituents,  18.0  per 
cent  of  fat,  3.0  per  cent  of  ash  or  mineral  matter,  and  2.0 
per  cent  of  other  substances,  including  also  a  little  water 
lost  in  manipulation.  Leghorn  hens  almost  two  years  old 
and  laying,  showed  an  average  composition  of  55.7  per 
cent  water,  21.6  per  cent  nitrogenous  matter,  17.0  per  cent 
of  fat,  3.8  per  cent  ash  constituents,  and  1.7  per  cent  other 
substances.  The  body  of  a  mature  capon  is  composed  of 
about  41.6  per  cent  of  water,  19.4  per  cent  nitrogenous 
matter,  33.9  per  cent  fat,  3.7  per  cent  ash,  and  1.4  per  cent 
other  substances. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  problem  of  poultry 
feeding  is  much  more  complex  than  that  of  feeding  most 
other  farm  stock,  fewer  carefully  collected  data  are  avail- 
able in  formulating  feeding  standards  for  poultry  than  for 
cattle.  The  following  rations  for  laying  hens  are,  how- 
ever, near  the  average  of  those  that  have  given  best 
results.  They  are  stated  at  the  rate  per  1000  lbs.  live 
weight,  to  compare  with  the  standards  which  have  been 
used  in  feeding  other  animals. 

One  thousand  pounds  live  weight  of  laying  hens,  of 
about  three  pounds  average  weight,  require  from  65  to  70 
pounds  of  total  food,  less  bulky  than  that  for  the  cow,  or 
about  52  pounds  water-free  food,  per  day,  containing  about 
9  pounds  digestible  protein,  20  pounds  digestible  nitrogen- 
free  extract  and  fiber,  and  4  pounds  of  fat.  From  this  ra- 
tion the  hens  would  produce  generally  from  16  to  31  pounds 
of  eggs  containing  from  5.2  lbs.  to  9.8  lbs.  dry  matter,  one 
pound  of  eggs  being  produced  from  about  3.4  lbs.  water- 
free  food,  one  pound  of  dry  matter  of  eggs  for  each  8.8  lbs. 
water-free  food. 

For  one  thousand  pounds  live  weight  of  hens  of  about 
six  pounds  average  weight,  there  should  be  fed  from  40  to 


34  AGRICULTURE. 

50  lbs.  of  food  per  day,  containing  about  34  pounds  of 
^vater-free  food.  There  should  be  in  this  about  6  pounds 
of  digestible  protein,  14  pounds  of  digestible  nitrogen-free 
extract  and  fiber,  and  2  pounds  of  digestible  fat. 

Per  hen  the  amount  of  food  required  per  day  varies 
according  to  the  size  and  somewhat  with  the  season.  A 
smaller  hen  will  eat  more  in  proportion  to  live  weight  than 
a  larger  one.  The  difference  in  amount  of  food  consumed 
by  larger  and  smaller  hens  is  less  when  laying  than  at  other 
times,  when  enough  for  maintenance  only  need'be  eaten. 

A  Cochin  or  Brahma  hen  when  laying  requires  about  4I 
ounces  of  food  per  day,  of  which  3!^  ounces  is  water-free 
food.  A  hen  of  Leghorn  size  when  laying  requires  about  3J 
ounces  of  total  food,  or  2|  ounces  of  water-free  food,  per  day. 

A  much  larger  amount  of  food  in  proportion  to  the  live 
weight  is  required  by  the  chicks  than  by  the  older  fowls. 
The  amount  of  water-free  food  required  for  every  one 
hundred  pounds  live  weight  fed  is  10.6  lbs.  at  about  one 
pound  average  weight;  at  two  pounds  7.5  lbs.;  at  three 
pounds  6.4  lbs;  at  four  pounds  5.5  lbs.;  at  five  pounds  5.3 
lbs.;  at  six  pounds  4.9  lbs.;  at  seven  pounds  4.7  lbs.;  at 
eight  pounds  4  lbs.;  at  nine  pounds  3.3  lbs.;  at  ten  pounds 
average  live  weight  3.2  lbs.  The  amounts  of  fresh  food 
equivalent  to  these  weights  would  be  correspondingly 
greater.  These  are  the  amounts  taken  by  growing  fowls 
which  normally  attain  to  the  higher  weights  given,  and 
which  are  still  immature  and  growing  rapidly  when  at  five 
and  six  pounds  average  weight. 

For  young  chicks  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  fed 
can  be  somewhat  narrower  than  those  given  for  laying 
hens,  and  for  fattening  the  ration  can  have  a  very  much 
wider  ratio,  although  only  for  short  periods. 

For  one  hundred  hens  about  16  quarts  of  clean  water 
per  day  is  required,  especially  in  dry  hot  weather.  In 
each  dozen  eggs  there  is  about  a  pint  of  water. 

A    Variety  of  Food  is  Essential. 

Young  hens,  especially  of  the  better  laying  breeds,  when 
in  full  laying,  can  be  freely  fed  all  they  wnll  readily  eat,  bu. 


FARM   ANIMALS.  ii5 

older  hens  and  the  young  ones  when  not  laying  should  be 
fed  only  enough  to  keep  them  eager  for  food. 

Salt  should  be  fed  mixed  with  the  food,  but  not  large 
coarse  crystals.  One  ounce  of  salt  per  day  for  one  hun- 
dred hens  is  a  good  proportion. 

Animal  food  and  green  or  succulent  vegetable  food,  as 
well  as  grain,  should  always  be  fed  to  hens  that  are  con- 
fined. It  is  very  important  that  ducks  should  have  these 
foods,  especially  growing  ducklings. 

Some  form  of  grit  should  be  liberally  supplied. 

A  largely  grain  ration  will  not  contain  the  lime  required 
by  laying  hens,  and  oyster-shells_  or  some  other  form  of 
carbonate  of  lime  will  supply  this  deficiency. 

A  grass  run  is  better  than  any  substitute  in  summer,  but  no 
run  should  contain  hens  in  such  number  as  to  kill  the  grass. 

Common  fowls,  especially  laying  hens,  must  be  kept  in 
moderately  small  flocks.  Where  large  numbers  are  kept, 
they  should  be  divided  in  small  lots  in  separate  pens  and 
yards.  Ten  to  twenty  in  a  pen  give  better  results  than 
larger  numbers.  The  laying  hens  should  be  kept  sepa- 
rated from  those  not  laying. 

Hens  will  not  always  moult  early  enough  to  resume  lay- 
ing before  midwinter.  Chicks  should  be  hatched  in  March 
and  April  if  eggs  are  to  be  obtained  from  the  pullets  in 
November.  Asiatics,  to  begin  laying  in  the  fall,  should 
be  hatched  in  February  and  March. 

The  best  results  in  egg  production  cannot  be  secured 
where  the  average  space  of  open  run  available  per  hen  is 
much  less  than  lOO  square  feet.  The  average  floor-space 
per  hen  indoors  should  be  about  20  square  feet. 

Exercise  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  especially  for  lay- 
ing and  breeding  stock,  and  a  good  way  to  assure  this  in 
winter-time  is  to  scatter  the  grain  in  straw  or  any  clean 
and  dry  substitute. 

Dampness  is  fatal,  and  dry  warm  houses  free  from 
draughts  are  essential  in  winter.  The  floors  should  be  of 
dry  earth  or  fine  gravel,  or  wooden  floors  covered  with 
straws  or  dry  sand.  The  houses  should  be  warm  enough 
to  prevent  freezing  of  water,  but  should  not  be  warmed  by 
heating  apparatus  more  than  will  insure  against  freezing. 


36 


AGRICULTURE. 


SYNOPSIS    OF    BREEDS   OF    POULTRY. 

(M.   Lemoine.) 


Breeds. 


Andalusian  

Brahma  (Hcfht) 

Cochin  (buff) 

Creve  Coeur 

Dorking  (silver  gray) 

(dark) 

Game 

Hamburgs  (silver  spangled)., 
(golden  pencilled) 

Houdan 

La  Fleche 

Langshan    

Leghorn  (brown) 

Minorca  (black) 

Plymouth  Rock 

Scotch  Gray , , 

Wyandottes , 


—  Q  t« 


oz. 

24 

33 

27)4 

27}^ 

24 

20I4 

26 

27 

22 

281^ 

27^ 

29 

25 


- 

73 

bo  . 

^^ 

0  rt 

^1 

2 

X  0 

4=  *f- 

«^ 

t£ 

.*^^ 

.£?§!« 

5° 

^VO 

«CCO 

lbs. 

lb. 

oz. 

lb.  oz. 

5-  6 

I 

2     15 

8-10 

11 

5       0 

8-10 

0 

5       4% 

8-9 

4     i4ki 

7-10 

4y^ 

4     14 

6-  9 

4 

3     12 

5-6 

i^V? 

2       7-^4 

4-  5 

3y„ 

2       7?4 

3J^-4 

15% 

2          71^ 

6-7 

7 

2        I0I4 

6-7 

,S% 

2          9'% 

7-10 

5       1^ 

5-6 

15!^ 

2     loM 

5^-7 

6-  73^ 

6 

3 

4l^ 

2     12 

51^7 

oz. 

9^ 
'7V^ 

6:^ 
6^ 
4^ 
4^ 
4^ 
6% 
6% 
7^ 
4% 


6M 


HEREDITY. 

By  Prof.  Thos.  Shaw,  of  Minnesota  Experiment  Station. 

Heredity  in  breeding  relates  to  transmission.  It  is 
doubtless  governed  by  fixed  laws,  but  many  of  these  are 
as  yet  imperfectly  understood.  It  may  be  defined  as  the 
outcome  of  the  operation  of  that  law  whereby  properties 
and  qualities  of  like  kind  with  those  of  the  parents  are 
transmitted  to  the  offspring.  This  transmission  is  cer- 
tainly comprehensive  in  its  character,  since  it  relates  to 
structure,  function  and  qualities,  and  indeed  to  every 
feature  of  the  organization.  But  in  instances  not  a  few 
there  are  apparent  exceptions  to  this  law -of  transmission. 
These,  however,  are  apparent  rather  than  real.  They 
appear  to  us  as  exceptions  because  of  the  limitations  of 
our  knowledge  of  this  great  question.  These  supposed 
exceptions  are  doubtless  the  result  of  the  predominant  in- 
fluence of  other  laws  acting  in  opposition  to  the  hereditary 
tendency,  and  it  is  characterized  as  normal,  abnormal, 
and  acquired,  according  to  its  nature. 


FARM   AXIMALS.  37 

The  heredity  of  normal  characters  means  the  transmis- 
sion of  those  characters  which  are  natural  to  the  type. 
These  may  be  original  traits  bestowed  upon  the  species, 
as  for  instance,  timidity  in  sheep;  or  they  may  have  been 
acquired  and  rendered  permanent  by  long-continued  trans- 
mission, as  in  the  changed  form  of  all  the  improved  breeds 
of  domestic  animals.  The  heredity  of  abnormal  characters 
means  the  transmission  of  irregular  characters,  or  those 
which  have  deviated  from  the  natural  and  acquired  char- 
acteristics of  the  type.  These  abnormal  characters  may 
appear  as  malformations  of  structure,  derangement  of 
function,  or  they  may  assume  one  or  the  other  of  various 
forms  of  disease.  Illustrations  of  the  first  are  found  in 
certain  families  with  an  irregular  number  of  fingers  and 
toes;  of  the  second  in  the  inheritance  of  deafness,  dumb- 
ness and  impaired  vision;  and  of  the  third,  in  the  reap- 
pearance in  the  offspring  of  certain  diseases  possessed  by 
the  parents,  as,  for  instance,  any  of  the  forms  of  scrofula 

The  laws  which  govern  heredity  are  those  also  which 
determine  the  results  in  practical  breeding.  In  practice 
the  rules  which  govern  it  are  almost  entirely  empirical  in 
their  origin,  since  they  have  been  almost  exclusively  de- 
rived from  the  accepted  methods  of  the  most  successful 
breeders.  Those  who  have  given  thought  to  the  question 
will  concede  that  breeding  live-stock  is  at  once  a  science 
and  an  art.  They  will  see  in  it  a  science  in  so  far  as  it 
discovers  and  systematically  arranges  those  truths  and 
principles  which  relate  to  the  improvement  of  live-stock, 
and  it  will  appear  to  them  an  art  in  so  far  as  they  perceive 
that  those  principles  can  be  successfully  utilized  in  prac- 
tice. It  is  apparent  therefore  that  the  relation  between  the 
science  and  the  art  of  breeding  is  both  close  and  intimate. 
Without  some  knowlege  of  the  former  the  latter  is  not 
likely  to  be  successfully  practised,  and  the  measure  of 
success  which  attends  the  efforts  of  the  breeder  will  be 
largely  proportionate  to  the  measure  of  the  knowledge 
which  he  may  possess  of  the  principles  of  heredity. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  certain  laws  which  govern 
transmission.     Of  these  three  may  be  considered  as  funda- 


oS  AGRICULTURE. 

mental,  viz.:  Jirsi,  the  law  that  "like  begets  like";  sec- 
one/,  the  law  or  principle  of  variation;  and  third,  the  law 
or  principle  known  as  atavism.  Since  these  laws  or  prin- 
ciples appear  to  us  to  lack  uniformity  and  regularity  of 
action,  the  art  of  breeding  is  in  consequence  much  more 
complicated  and  uncertain  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 
This  want  of  uniformity  and  of  regularity  of  action,  how- 
ever, is  apparent  rather  than  real.  But  so  long  as  we  are 
ignorant  of  the  cause  or  causes  of  these  apparent  irregu- 
larities in  transmission,  we  are  unable  to  prevent  them. 
And  yet  there  is  so  much  of  uniformity  in  the  action  of 
these  laws  that  the  intelligent  breeder  cannot  be  said  to 
play  at  a  game  of  chance.  If  well  posted  in  the  art,  his 
efforts  will  in  the  main  be  entirely  successful. 

The  law  that  " //Z'^  begets  like''  implies  that  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  parents  will  appear  in  their  offspring. 
This  law  would  seem  to  pervade  all  animated  nature  ; 
generally  speaking  it  is  uniform  in  its  action,  but  there 
are  some  exceptions.  Were  it  not  so,  examples  to  illus- 
trate such  a  law  of  heredity  and  proofs  to  support  it  would 
not  have  been  needed.  That  the  existence  of  this  law  was 
recognized,  and  that  many  of  its  principles  were  well  un- 
derstood from  an  early  period,  finds  ample  illustration  in 
the  breeding  operations  conducted  by  the  patriarch  Jacob, 
in  the  monstrous  forms  that  were  bred  for  the  amusement 
of  the  Romans  when  the  decline  of  the  empire  was  pend- 
ing, and  in  the  care  with  which  the  Arabs  kept  their  pedi- 
grees from  a  remote  antiquity. 

So  uniform  is  this  principle  of  heredity  in  its  action  that 
it  may  be  designated  the  compass  which  guides  the  breeder 
into  the  harbor  of  success.  But  before  he  can  anchor  there 
he  must  give  attention  to  certain  principles,  a  close  adher- 
ence to  which  is  absolutely  essential  to  higher  attainment 
in  results.  He  must,  for  instance,  breed  to  a  standard  of 
excellence;  he  must  set  a  proper  value  on  improved  blood; 
and  he  must  understand  the  art  of  selection  and  the  princi- 
ples of  good  management  generally.  Without  a  standard 
of  excellence  in  his  mind,  that  is,  without  an  ideal  type, 
the  breeder  does   not    himself  know  what  he  is  seeking. 


S'ARM    ANIMALS.  30 

Without  dominant  or  stable  characters,  in  at  least  one  par- 
ent, no  stability  in  transmission  can  be  looked  for,  and 
without  purity  of  breeding  for  generations  dominant  char- 
acters cannot  be  secured.  Hence  the  great  importance  of 
purity  of  blood  in  effecting  improvement  in  domestic  ani- 
mals. Since  some  inferior  animals  will  occasionally  ap- 
pear, even  where  the  breeding  is  the  most  skilful,  the 
necessity  will  always  exist  for  the  exercise  of  a  most  rigor- 
ous selection  on  the  part  of  every  breeder  who  is  to  stand 
on  the  upland  of  success.  When  aided  by  judicious  selec- 
tion, the  law  that  like  produces  like  enables  us  to  effect 
improvement  until  a  certain  standard  of  excellence  is 
reached,  to  maintain  improvement  when  it  has  been 
secured,  and  to  mould  new  types  and  form  new  breeds. 

By  the  law  or  principle  of  variation  is  meant  the  ten- 
'dency  sometimes  found  in  animals  to  produce  characters 
in  the  progeny  which  differ  from  those  of  the  parental 
type.  These  changes  relate  to  both  form  and  function; 
in  time  they  may  become  modifications  of  the  systems  of 
animals.  They  may  be  classed  as  gradual,  or  general  a.nd 
ordi7iary;  and  as  sudden,  or  spontaneous  and  extraordinary. 
General  variation  is  that  tendency  to  change  from  the 
original  type  which  characterizes  in  a  greater  or  a  less  de- 
gree all  the  individuals  of  a  breed.  Illustrations  of  the 
principle  of  general  variation  may  be  found,  first,  in  the 
tendency  of  grain  to  deteriorate  which  has  fallen  upon  an 
unkindly  soil  ;  and  second,  in  the  quick  deterioration  of 
the  heavy  breeds  of  sheep  when  confined  to  unproductive 
and  rugged  pastures.  Chief  among  the  numerous  causes 
leading  to  general  variation  are  changed  conditions  of  life 
in  animals,  as  climate,  food,  habit,  and  environment.  Some- 
times these  influences  act  independently  and  sometimes  in 
conjunction.  The  principle  of  spontaneous  variation  may 
be  defined  as  that  tendency  sometimes  found  in  animals  to 
produce  progeny  more  or  less  unlike  either  of  the  parents 
or  the  ancestry  of  these.  Illustrations  of  the  operation  of 
this  principle  may  be  found  in  the  occasional  production  of 
progeny  very  unlike  the  parents  or  the  ancestry  in  color, 
form,  and  other  characteristics,  and  in  the  existence  of  horn- 
less breeds  of  cattle. 


40  AGRICULTURE. 

By  atavism  is  meant  that  innate  tendency  in  animals  to 
revert  to  the  original  type.  It  differs  from  the  principle 
that  like  produces  like  in  the  reproduction  of  resemblances 
to  an  ancestry  more  or  less  remote  rather  than  to  the  par- 
ents, and  differs  from  spontaneous  variation  in  produc- 
ing resemblances  to  an  ancestry  more  remote  than  the  im- 
mediate parents,  whereas  the  latter  produces  characters 
unlike  those  of  the  ancestry,  whether  near  or  remote.  Il- 
lustrations of  atavic  transmission  are  found  in  the  occa- 
sional apearance  of  scars  or  horns  in  the  polled  breeds  of 
cattle  bred  pure  for  many  successive  generations,  and  in 
the  occasional  appearance  of  tan-colored  spots  on  the  ears 
and  face  of  the  American  merino. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  principles  which  govern  breeding  is  highly  important 
to  those  engaged  in  the  production  of  live-stock.  Hence 
they  should  study  these  with  the  utmost  care  and  should  em- 
body them  in  their  practice  to  the  greatest  possible  extent. 


YETERINAEY   SCIENCE.  41 


III.    VETERINARY    SCIENCE. 

COMMON   DISEASES   OF   FARM   ANIMALS. 

By  W.  G.  Clark,  M.D.C,  Marinette.  Wis. 
I.  HORSES. 

The  common  method  of  administering  medicine  to  the  horse 
is  in  the  form  of  a  drench.  In  drenching  a  horse  the  bottle 
should  be  clean,  strong,  and  smooth.  The  head  should  be 
elevated  just  enough  to  prevent  the  horse  from  throwing  the 
liquid  from  the  mouth.  If  the  animal  refuses  to  swallow,  tickle 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  with  the  finger  or  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 
Do  not  rub,  pinch,  or  pound  the  throat,  nor  draw  the  tongue 
out.  These  in  no  way  aid  the  horse  to  swallow  and  often  do 
harm.  If  coughing  occurs  or  by  any  mishap  the  bottle  is 
crushed  in  the  mouth,  lower  the  head  at  once.  Do  not  attempt 
to  pour  medicine  through  the  nose;  it  is  liable  to  strangle  the 
animal. 

Irritating  substances,  as  turpentine,  should  be  given  in  bland 
fluids  such  as  oil' or  milk. 

Warm-water  injections  are  of  great  value  in  treating  many 
bowel  troubles.  A  very  good  injection  pipe  may  be  made  with 
about  30  inches  of  inch  rubber  hose  and  an  ordinary  tin  funnel. 
Oil  the  hose  and  insert  it  in  the  rectum  from  12  to  18  inches,  and 
elevate  the  funnel  above  the  back  and  pour  in  the  water.  The 
force  of  gravitation  will  carry  it  into  the  bowels. 

Soap  and  water,  or  salt  and  water,  may  be  injected  in  this 
manner  m  quantitities  of  a  gallon  or  more  every  hour. 

Spasmodic  Colic. 

Causes. — Error  in  diet  is  the  most  prolific  cause,  as  improper 
food  in  improper  quantities  at  irregular  intervals  ;  large 
draughts  of  cold  water  when  warm  ;  eating  when  exhausted  ; 
intestinal  parasites;   or  foreign  bodies  in  the  bowels. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  manifests  uneasiness,  moves  forward 
and  back  in  the  stall,  looks  toward  the  flank,  switches  the  tail, 
paws,  lies  down  and  rolls;  after  a  little  the  spasm  will  subside 
and  the  animal  become  quiet.     Soon  the   spasm   returns  with 


42  AGRICULTURE. 

increased  severity.  As  the  disease  progresses,  the  animal 
will  become  more  violent  and  the  intervals  between  tne 
spasms  shorter. 

Treatment. — Always  urgent,  as  it  often  runs  a  rapid 
course,  terminating  fatally  in  a  few  hours. 

Give  as  a  drench  laudanum  i  oz.,  baking-soda  one  table- 
spoonful,  sweet  spts.  nitre  i  oz.,  water  one  half-pint.  This 
may  be  repeated  in  half  an  hour  if  not  relieved.  Always 
give  injections  of  soap  and  warm  water.  Blanket  the  ani- 
mal and  rub  the  abdomen  briskly.  If  inclined  to  hang  on, 
apply  a  paste  of  mustard  to  the  abdomen  and  give  raw  lin- 
seed oil  I  pt.,  chloral  hydrate  4  dr.,  dissolved  in  warm 
water. 

Flatulent  Colic. 

The  causes  and  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  spas- 
modic colic. 

The  pain  is  not  so  severe  at  the  outset  and  gradually  in- 
creases in  severity  as  the  bowels  become  distended  by  gas. 
No  intervals  of  ease  as  in  spasmodic  colic.  The  abdomen 
becomes  rapidly  distended  and  the  animal  dies  from  suffo- 
cation or  rupture  of  the  bowels  unless  soon  relieved. 

Treatment. — Usually  necessary  to  puncture  with  a  tro- 
car and  canula,  which  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  anat- 
omy of  the  parts.  Internally  give  hyposulfite  of  soda  2  oz., 
fl.  ex.  ginger  4  dr.,  spts.  turpentine  4  dr.,  water  i  pint. 
Repeat  in  half  an  hour  if  necessary.  Give  injection  of  soap 
and  warm  water  at  short  intervals. 

Pneumonia — Lung  Fever. 

The  most  common  cause  is  exposure  to  a  cold  draught 
when  tired  and  sweaty. 

Symptoms. — It  is  usually  ushered  in  with  a  chill,  fol- 
lowed by  fever.  The  ears  and  legs  are  cold,  pulse-rate  in- 
creased, labored  breathing,  elbows  turned  out,  increased 
working  of  the  ribs,  the  animal  persistently  stands,  appe- 
tite usually  lost. 

Treatment. — Place  in  a  comfortable  well-ventilated  box- 
stall.     Blanket   warmly,  rub   the  legs  and  apply  bandages. 


VET:EkiXARY   SCIENCE.  43 

During  the  chill  give  large  doses  of  stimulants,  as  whisky, 
alcohol,  ginger,  etc.,  at  short  intervals. 

If  the  breathing  is  not  relieved  in  a  few  hours,  apply  mus- 
tard over  the  ribs,  just  back  of  the  shoulder-blades. 

Give  nourishing,  easily  digested  food.  Keep  the  animal 
perfectly  quiet.  Give  i-oz.  doses  of  nitrate  of  potash  in  the 
drinking-water  three  times  daily.  After  the  chill  is  relieved 
keep  a  pail  of  fresh  water  before  the  animal  at  all  times. 

Azoturia — Black- water. 

This  disease  is  quite  common  among  farm  horses, 
and  is  due  solely  to  overfeeding  on  nitrogenous  foods  and 
lack  of  exercise,  followed  by  the  accumulation  in  the  sys- 
tem of  waste  matters. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  is  taken  from  the  barn  after  a 
few  days'  rest  on  full  rations,  apparently  as  well  as  usual. 
After  driving  from  half  a  mile  to  six  or  eight  miles  the 
horse  will  begin  to  lag  and  sweat  profusely.  Shortly  will 
begin  to  go  lame,  usually  in  one  hind  limb.  If  urged  on, 
will  soon  lose  the  use  of  the  limbs  and  fall  to  the 
ground,  unable  to  rise.  The  urine  if  passed  will 
be  dark  and  coffee-colored.  This  is  a  diagnos- 
tic symptom.  The  muscles  over  the  hips  become  hard 
and  swollen,  and  the  animal  will  struggle  convulsively  and 
attempt  to  rise. 

Treatment. — Unhitch  the  animal  as  soon  as  the  first  symp- 
toms are  noticed  and  take  the  horse  to  the  nearest  barn.  Fold 
a  woolen  blanket  and  wring  out  of  hot  water  and  place  over  the 
hips,  covering  with  a  dry  blanket.  Repeat  as  soon  as  it  becomes 
cool,  and  continue  this  until  the  more  acute  symptoms  are  re- 
lieved. Internally  give  laudanum  i  oz.,  raw  linseed  oil  one  pint, 
and  repeat  the  laudanum  in  an  hour  if  the  pain  is  not  relieved. 
If  possible,  the  urine  should  be  drawn  with  a  catheter,  as  it  is 
rarely  passed  when  the  animal  is  down.  Give  injections  of  soapy 
warm  water  at  frequent  intervals. 

Distemper —  Strangles. 

This  is  a  contagious  disease  due  to  a  specific  virus  that  very 
few  horses  escape.  It  usually  runs  a  benign  course  and  termi- 
nates favorably. 


44  AGRICULTURE. 

Treatment, — It  is  not  of  much  use  to  attempt  to  check  the 
course  of  the  disease;  in  all  cases  proper  shelter  and  nursing  are 
most  important. 

Give  laxative  sloppy  food  and  apply  warm  poultices  to  the 
throat,  to  hasten  suppuration.  In  no  case  give  purging  or  de- 
pressing medicines.  In  fact,  the  whole  treatment  consists  in 
producing  and  favoring  the  discharge  of  the  abscess.  As  soon 
as  fluctuation  can  be  detected  the  abscess  should  be  opened. 
When  the  disease  assumes  the  malignant  form  or  is  complicated, 
apply  to  a  competent  veterinarian. 

Sprains. 

Treatment. — Rest  in  a  quiet  well-bedded  stall.  If  the  injury 
is  below  the  knee  or  hock  and  the  weather  is  warm,  bathe  the 
part  three  times  daily  for  an  hour  at  a  time  with  cold  water  and 
rub  dry. 

If  above  the  knee  or  hock,  or  the  weather  is  cold,  use  hot  water. 

After  bathing  apply  a  mild  stimulant,  as  spirits  of  camphor, 
arnica,  etc. 

If  the  lameness  persists  after  the  active  inflammation  is  re- 
duced use  the  following  liniment:  aqua  ammonia  and  spirits 
turpentine,  4  oz. ;  of  each  linseed  oil  8  oz. ;  mix  and  apply  twice 
daily  with  friction. 

Punctured  Wounds  of  the  Foot. 

In  all  cases  the  horn  around  the  seat  of  the  injury  should 
be  thinned  down  and  a  free  opening  made  for  the  escape  of 
the  products  of  suppuration.  Cauterize  the  wound  with  95 
per  cent  carbolic  acid  and  apply  a  poultice.  Change  twice 
daily  and  dress  the  wound  with  the  following  lotion:  Zinc 
sulph.  I  oz.,  sugar  lead  i  oz.,  carbolic  acid  4  dr.,  water  i  pint. 
Thrnsli. 

The  most  common  cause  of  thrush  is  the  filthy  condition  of 
the  stable  in  which  the  horse  is  kept.  Muddy  yards  and  roads, 
also  hard  work  on  rough,  stony  roads  may  excite  this  disease. 

Symptoms. — Increased  secretion  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog  and 
an  offensive  odor.  After  a  time  considerable  discharge  takes 
place  and  there  is  rapid  destruction  of  the  tissue  of  the  frog. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  cause.  Cut  away  all  diseased  tissue 
and  cleanse  the  foot  thoroughly.  Take  white  vitriol  i  oz.,  and 
water  6  ozs.  Saturate  pledgets  of  tow  or  cotton  with  the  solu- 
tion and  crowd  into  the  cleft  and  each  side  of  the  frog.  Dress 
once  daily  until  the  discharge  ceases. 


VETEIU^nAKY    tClKNCE.  45 

Cuts  ft'oiii  Barb-Avire,  etc. 

When  bleeding  to  any  extent  follows  a  wound,  this  must  first 
be  checked. 

A  moderately  tight  bandage  with  oakum,  tow,  or  cobwebs  will 
usually  stop  the  bleeding  in  a  short  time.  If  the  blood  is  bright 
red  and  flows  in  jets, apply  a  compress  between  the  wound  and 
the  heart. 

If  it  is  dark  and  the  flow  regular,  apply  pressure  between  the 
wound  and  the  extremity.  Cleanse  the  wound  thoroughly  with 
warm  water  and  a  soft  sponge.  Then  dress  with  a  3  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  apply  a  bandage  so  as  to  bring  the 
edges  together.     If  proud  flesh  appears,  treat  it  with  burnt  alum. 

II.  COWS. 

Milk   Fever. 

Symptoms.  —  Dulness,  uneasy  movements  of  the  hind 
limbs,  head  and  horns  hot;  the  animal  soon  becomes  weak 
and  unable  to  rise,  head  laid  back  on  the  flank  or  dashed  to 
the  ground,  bowels  constip<itc<^,  sensation  usually  lost. 

Treatment. — Give  a  purgative  dose  of  salts.  Apply 
mustard  paste  along  the  spine.      Blanket  and  keep  warm. 

Give  injections  of  soap  and  warm  water.  Internally  give 
l  pt.  of  whisky,  fl.  ex.  belladonna  ^  oz.,  tr.  nux  vomica  2  dr. 
every  three  hours. 

Prevention. — Spare  diet  a  week  before  and  after  calving. 
If  constipated  after  delivery  give  a  dose  of  salts. 
Garget. 

Causes. — Irregularities  of  diet,  overfeeding  on  stimulat- 
ing food,  exposure  to  cold,  external  injuries,  as  blows,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Seldom  attacks  the  whole  udder.  Swelling, 
heat,  pain,  and  redness  of  the  inflamed  portion.  The  milk 
is  curdled,  whey-like,  and  mixed  with  blood.  In  severe 
cases  there  is  much  constitutional  disturbance. 

Treatment. — Endeavor  to  discover  the  cause  and  remove 
it.  The  food  should  be  devoid  of  milk-producing  constitu- 
ents. Draw  the  milk  frequently,  using  a  milking-tube  if 
necessary. 

If  the  weather  is  warm  bathe  the  udder  for  an  hour  or 
more  with  hot  water. 

Take    fluid    extract    belladonna    i    oz.,    glycerin    2    ozs.; 


4G  AGRICULTURE. 

mix  and  apply  three  times  daily  with  mild  friction.  Give 
two  teaspoonfuls  fluid  extract  belladonna  three  times 
daily.  If  constipated,  give  epsom  salts  i  lb.,  ginger  i  oz., 
water  i  qt. 

Abortion. 

The  cow  may  abort  from  any  cause  profoundly  disturbing 
the  nervous  system,  inflammation  of  the  internal  organs, 
diarrhoea,  acute  indigestion,  blows  on  the  abdomen,  expos- 
ure to  cold  storms,  drinking  ice-water,  feeding  on  ergotized 
grains  and  grasses,  and  infection  from  abortion  discharges 
of  other  animals. 

Symptoms. — If  it  occurs  within  the  first  two  months  it  is 
not  apt  to  be  noticed.  During  the  latter  part  of  gestation 
abortion  resembles  normal  delivery,  except  that  more  effort 
and  straining  are  present. 

Treatment. — The  most  important  object  in  an  impending 
abortion  is  to  recognize  it  as  soon  as  possible  and  apply 
preventive  measures.  Place  in  a  quiet  dark  stall  and  check 
straining  by  sedatives.  Laudanum  i  oz. ;  repeat  in  two 
hours  if  necessary;  or  fl.  ex.  black  haw.  in  same  doses. 

After  an  abortion  burn  the  foetus  and  afterbirth  and  all 
fitter  that  is  soiled,  or  bury  deeply  and  cover  with  quick- 
lime. 

Flood  the  womb  with  a  2%  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and 
wash  the  external  organs  once  daily  with  a  5^  solution. 
Separate  from  the  herd  for  30  days. ' 

In  epizootic  abortion  material  benefit  has  in  many  cases 
been  derived  from  phosphate  of  lime.  Small  doses  (^  dram) 
mav  be  given  daily  in  the  food. 

Hoven  or  Bloat. 

Causes. — Overeating,  choking,  frosted  roots,  and  fermen- 
tation of  the  food. 

Treatment. — In  urgent  cases  tap  on  the  left  side  at  a 
point  equidistant  from  the  point  of  the  hip,  the  last  rib  and 
the  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebrge,  pointing  the  trocar 
or  knife    downward,  inward,  and   forward.      If    slight  give 


VETElilXARY    SCIEX'-i:.  4.  i 

spts.  turpentine  i  oz.,  raw  linseed  oil  ^  pt.,  and  place  a  gag 
in  the  mouth. 

When  relieved  give  a  purgative  and  keep  on  a  light  diet 
for  a  few  days. 

Diarrhoea  in  Calves. 

Always  diue  to  indigestion  and  caused  usually  by  over- 
feeding or  improper  food. 

Prevention. — Feed  at  least  three  times  daily.  The  milk 
should  be  sweet  and  fed  at  a  temperature  of  90"  to  100°  F. 
The  pails  used  in  feeding  should  be  kept  sweet  and  clean. 

Treatment. — Cut  down  the  ration,  scald  the  milk  or  add 
lime-water  in  the  proportion  of  i  to  5.  If  the  discharges 
are  bright  yellow  give  castor  oil  i  to  2  tablespoonfuls.  If 
there  is  great  weakness  give  small  doses  of  stimulants 
(ginger,  brandy,  whisky). 

Choking. 

Common  among  cattle  when  fed  on  roots,  etc.  To  pre- 
vent tie  the  head  so  that  it  cannot  be  thrown  up,  or  withhold 
dangerous  foods. 

Symptoms. — Head  extended,  bloating,  labored  breathing, 
continuous  coughing.  If  in  the  throat  there  is  great  distress 
and  the  animal  may  die  quickly.  If  lower  the  symptoms 
are  not  as  acute. 

Treatment. — If  in  the  throat  remove  with  the  hand.  If 
below  reach  and  the  object  can  be  located  from  the  outside, 
give  small  drenches  of  linseed  oil  and  manipulate  from  the 
outside.  Take  time.  Do  not  apply  too  much  force.  Usu- 
ally best  to  work  the  object  toward  the  throat. 

If  unable  to  remove  the  object  it  must  be  pushed  down; 
this  may  be  done  with  a  piece  of  i-in.  rubber-hose,  6  ft.  in 
length,  well  oiled,  and  inserted  in  the  gullet,  and  gently 
force  the  object  down. 

Tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis  is  an  infectious  disease  characterized  by  the 
formation  in  the  various  organs  of  the  body  of  tubercles  or 


48  AGRICULTURE. 

nodules,  and  is  due  to  a  specific  micro-organism,  the  bacillus 
tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis  in  animals  is  identical  wit-h  tuberculosis 
(consumption)  in  the  human  family,  the  ravages  of  which 
are  far  greater  than  those  of  any  other  disease. 

The  death  rate  from  consumption,  which  is  but  one  of  its 
many  forms,  is  about  one  in  seven. 

All  domestic  animals  are  more  or. less  subject  to  the  dis- 
ease. Dairy  cattle,  however,  in  consequence  of  their  mode 
of  life  and  the  heavy  drain  on  their  system  from  excessive 
breeding  and  milking,  are  more  predisposed  to  the  disease 
than  any  other  of  the  domestic  animals. 

Cause. — The  essential  cause  is  the  specific  germ,  the 
tubercle  bacillus,  without  which  the  disease  could  not  exist. 
Since  the  disease  is  found  in  the  lungs  in  a  large  proportion 
of  cases,  it  is  evident  that  tuberculosis  is  usually  contracted 
by  inhaling  the  germs  with  the  air.  It  may  also  be  caused 
by  the  ingestion  of  infected  meat  and  milk  and  by  direct 
inoculation. 

The  development  of  the  disease  is  favored  by  anything 
that  tends  to  impair  the  general  health  of  the  animal,  as 
overcrowding  in  poorly  ventilated  stables,  hereditary  pre- 
disposition, in-and-in  breeding,  lack  of  exercise,  errors  in 
diet,  etc. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  very  obscure,  and  in  some 
cases  where  the  disease  is  well  advanced  there  is  seemingly 
little  alteration  in  the  health  of  the  animal.  The  most 
prominent  symptoms  are  a  short,  husky  cough,  enlargement 
of  the  lymph  glands  around  the  throat,  dulness,  capricious 
appetite,  staring  coat,  and  emaciation. 

Persistent  oestrum  or  heat,  with  barrenness,  especially 
when  there  is  a  harsh,  staring  coat  and  general  unthrifty 
condition,  is  suspicious. 

The  Tuberculin  Test. — Tuberculin  is  a  glycerin  ex- 
tract of  the  soluble  products  produced  by  the  growth  of  the 
tubercle  bacillus,  concentrated,  filtered,  and  sterilized. 
When  properly  prepared  it  contains  no  living  germs  and 
cannot  produce  tuberculosis.  It  was  introduced  to  the 
medical  profession  by  Dr.  Koch  as  a  cure  for  tuberculosis. 


VETERIN^ART   SCIElvrCE.  49 

Although  it  has  not  found  practical  application  as  a  curative 
agent,  it  furnishes  us  the  best  diagnostic  agent  for  bovine 
tuberculosis  yet  known. 

A  summary  of  statistics  indicates  that  about  88  per  cent 
of  tuberculous  animals  show  the  reaction  fever  on  inocula- 
tion, while  90  per  cent  that  were  declared  free  from  disease 
on  account  of  the  absence  of  fever  did  not  show  on  autopsy 
any  signs  of  the  disease. 

Prevention. — The  stables  should  be  light  and  well  ven- 
tilated. Cattle  should  be  kept  from  interchange  of  stalls 
or  stanchions.  Breed  only  from  healthy  animals.  No  con- 
sumptive person  should  be  allowed  to  care  for  stock. 

Isolate  all  suspected  animals.  Such  animals  should  be 
examined  by  a  competent  veterinarian,  and  if  found  to  be 
tuberculous  the  whole  herd  should  be  tested.  Tuberculous 
animals  should  be  killed  and  the  carcasses  burned  or  buried 
deeply  and  covered  with  quicklime.  Disinfection  should 
be  thorough.  Remove  and  burn  all  litter.  Burn  sulphur 
in  the  closed  stable.  Wash  or  spray  all  woodwork  with  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  one  part,  to  one  thousand 
parts  of  water. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  a  deadly  poison  and  should  be 
used  with  care.     Whitewash  with  freshly  slaked  lime. 

III.  SHEEP. 
Scab. 

Due  to  parasitic  mites  which  infest  the  skin. 

Symptoms. — Intense  itching,  small  reddish  pimples  ap- 
pear, rupture,  and  discharge  a  watery  fluid;  scabs  form,  the 
wool  falls  out  in  patches.  Large  sores  sometimes  result 
from  the  incessant  rubbing.  The  parasite  may  be  seen  with 
a  low-power  lens. 

Treatment. — Take  one  pound  of  tobacco  to  each  five 
gallons  of  water  and  boil  until  the  strength  is  exhausted 
from  the  leaves.  Strain  and  add  one  pound  of  sulphur  to 
each  five  gallons.  Allow  each  sheep  to  remain  in  the  bath 
for  five  minutes,  working  the  solution  into  all  parts  of  the 
skin  and  breaking  up  the  scabs.  Place  on  a  slooping  rack 
and  press  the  liquid  out  of  the  fleece,  allowing  it  to  run  back 
into  the  trough.     The  same  dip  may  be  used  for  ticks. 


10  AGRICULTURE. 


Foot-Rot. 


Separate  the  sound  animals  from  the  diseased  ones  and 
from  contaminated  pastures  and  buildings.  Carefully 
/emove  all  diseased  horn  and  foreign  bodies  and  walk 
the  sheep  through  a  trough  containing  one  pound  of  blue 
vitriol  to  three  gallons  of  water.  Place  the  infected  flock 
on  a  dry  upland  pasture,  if  possible. 

Grub  ill  the  Head. 

This  is  the  larvse  of  a  small  gadfly  {yestrus  ovis)  which 
deposits  its  eggs  within  the  nostrils.  It  stays  there  during 
the  winter  and  spring,  often  proving  harmless,  but  some- 
times causing  much  irritation,  a  white  muco-purulent  dis- 
charge, with  dullness  and  stupor. 

Prevention. — Smear  the  nose  with  tar,  or  feed  salt  from 
two-inch  augur-holes  bored  in  a  log,  the  surface  of  which  is 
smeared  with  tar. 

Treatment. — Place  in  a  warm  building  and  introduce 
into  the  nostrils  snuff,  a  solution  of  tobacco,  or  turpentine 
and  olive-oil  equal  parts,  to  kill  the  larvae  or  cause  their 
expulsion  by  sneezing;  or  place  in  a  close  room  and  subject 
to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  for  15  min.,  as  strong  as 
can  be  endured,  once  daily  for  3  or  4  days. 

IV.  SWINE. 

Hog  Cholera. 

A  specific  contagious  fever  of  swine. 

Symptoms. — The  period  of  incubation  varies  from  three 
to  fifteen  days.  Shivering,  nose  hot  and  dry,  later  refuses 
food,  lies  under  the  litter,  eyes  sunken,  gait  unsteady. 
Heat  and  soreness  of  the  skin,  with  tenderness,  red  patches 
and  black  spots;  labored  breathing;  hard,  dry  cough;  sore- 
ness of  the  belly;  costiveness,  followed  by  a  foetid  diar- 
rhoea. 

Prevention. — If  it  breaks  out  in  a  herd,  kill  and  bury  the 
diseased.  Thoroughly  disinfect  everything  they  have  come 
in  contact  with,  using  one-half  ounce  of  corrosive  sublimate 
in  four  gallons  of  water.  Burn  all  straw  and  litter.  Give 
the  healthy  ones  clean,  dry  quarters.  If  possible,  divide  up 
the  herd,  placing  a  fevv  in  each  pen.     Allow  free  access  to 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE.  51 

wood  or  animal  charcoal  and  give  in  the  drinking-water  ten 
drops  of  carbolic  acid  for  each  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
of  live  weight.  Take  the  temperature  daily,  inserting  a 
clinical  thermometer  in  the  rectum,  and  remove  every 
animal  showing  a  temperature  of  103°  or  over. 

Kill  and  bury  as  soon  as  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  are 
well  manifested. 

Medicinal  treatment  of  the  disease  is  of  but  little  avail. 
A  good  dietetical  treatment,  including  a  strict  observance  of 
sanitary  principles,  is  of  much  more  importance  than  the 
use  of  medicines. 

The  pens  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  The  food 
given  should  be  clean,  of  the  best  quality,  and  easily 
digested.  The  troughs  used  in  feeding  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  at  least  once  daily.  Keep  away  from  in- 
fected herds,  as  the  germs  may  be  carried  on  the  shoes  or 
clothing.  It  is  said  that  the  virus  will  blow  half  a  mile  on 
the  wind.     It  may  also  be  spread  by  birds  and  dogs. 

Intestinal  "U'"ornis. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  common  troubles  of  swine. 

Symptoms. — A  cough  is  usually  the  first  symptom  noticed; 
animals  have  a  voracious  appetite,  yet  lose  flesh  and  exhibit 
general  signs  of  ill  health.  If  the  faeces  are  examined  the 
worms  or  their  eggs  can  usually  be  found. 

Treatment. — Give  one  teaspoonful  of  spirits  of  turpentine 
for  each  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  live  weight  once 
daily  in  milk  or  oil.  Place  common  salt  where  they  can  have 
free  access  to  it.     Give  nutritious,  easily  digested  food. 

VETERINARY  REMEDIES  AND  DOSES. 

By  W.  G.  Clark,  M.D.C,  Marinette,  Wis. 
Graduation  of  Doses. 


Horse.  Ox. 


3  years.  2  years. 

T  g  months. 

6  montlis.  !  3-6 

-6        "  i  1-3        " 


Dose. 


I  part. 
2/3     " 
1/3     " 
1/8    " 
t/16 — 1/32  part. 


52  AGRICULTURE. 

When  not  specified,  the  doses  given  apply  to  a  full-grown 
horse  of  medium  size.  Dose  for  the  ox,  from  i^  to  2  parts; 
sheep,  5^  to  J  part.  Animals  of  a  nervous  temperament  are 
usually  more  susceptible  to  the  action  of  drugs. 

No  agent  should  be  given  until  sufficiently  diluted  to 
prevent  irritation  of  the  mouth,  and  irritants  that  will  not 
mix  with  water  (turpentine,  etc.)  should  be  given  in  linseed 
oil,  milk,  or  eggs,  after  being  thoroughly  mixed. 

Raw  Linseed  Oil. — Dose  :  Horse,  one  half-pint  to  one 
quart.  Laxative  in  small  doses,  purgative  in  large.  Not 
so  active  as  castor  oil.  A  valuable  laxative  in  young  and 
delicate  animals.  For  calves  and  lambs  it  is  more  gentle 
and  safer  than  salts.  In  adults  it  is  the  best  laxative  to 
use  where  there  is  an  irritable  condition  of  the  bowels,  and 
in  all  febrile  diseases  where  a  laxative  is  needed.  In  im- 
paction of  the  bowels  a  pint  may  be  given  two  or  three 
times  daily  until  relieved,  supplemented  by  warm-water 
injections  every  two  hours.  Valuable  in  cases  of  choking 
on  account  of  its  lubricating  qualities. 

Castor  Oil. — Causes  more  griping  and  nausea  than  lin- 
seed oil  and  is  more  certain  in  its  action.  Used  chiefly  as  a 
laxative  for  calves,  foals,  sheep,  swine,  and  dogs. 

Useful  in  diarrhoea  of  calves  and  other  young  animals 
when  the  discharges  are  bright  yellow  and  irritating. 
Dose  for  a  calf,  from  i  to  4  tablespoonfuls. 

Epsom  Salts. — For  cattle  this  is  the  purgative  in  most 
frequent  and  general  use.  Adult  cattle  take  from  i  lb.  to  i^ 
lbs.  In  small  doses  in  febrile  diseases  it  lowers  the  tem- 
perature, improves  the  appetite,  and  helps  to  maintain  a 
healthy  and  regular  action  of  the  bowels.  Epsom  salts  is 
one  of  the  best  antidotes  for  lead  poisoning.  When  used 
as  a  purgative,  give  from  i  to  2  oz.  ginger  with  the  salts. 

Oil  of  Turpentine  (Spts.  Turpentine). — Dose  :  Horse, 
^  to  I  oz.  Very  irritating  to  the  mucous  membrane,  and  when 
used  internally  should  be  given  in  oil  or  some  bland  fluid. 
Stimulant  and  anti-spasmodic.  One  of  the  most  useful 
remedies  in  flatulent  colic  in  the  horse,  and  hoven  or  bloat 
in  the  ox.  Also  used  to  kill  and  expel  intestinal  worms. 
When   used   for  this    purpose,   it   is  given  after   fasting  in 


VETERIKAKY   SCIENCE.  53 

large  doses,  i^  to  2  oz.  for  the  horse,  followed  in  12  hours 
by  a  purgative. 

Applied  externally  it  is  an  irritant  and  is  used  in  many 
liniments.  The  following  liniment  may  be  used  where  a 
mild  counter-irritant  is  desired  :  Oil  of  turpentine  and  aqua 
ammonia,  of  each  4  oz.,  linseed  oil  8  oz.  Mix.  This  lini- 
ment  is  used  chiefly  for  rheumatic  swellings,  sprains,  and 
bruises  after  the  active  pain  is  subdued  by  fomentations, 
and  for  sore  throats,  as  seen  in  distemper. 

Alcohol.  —  Dose  :  Horse,  h  oz.  well  diluted,  whisky 
or  brandy  2  to  4  oz.  Alcohol  is  a  narcotic  poison.  It  first 
stimulates,  then  deranges,  and  ultimately  depresses  the 
functions  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  It  kills,  as  a  rule,  by 
paralysis  of  respiration.  Medicinally  it  is  a  very  valuable, 
diffusible  stimulant,  anti-spasmodic  heart  tonic  and  anti- 
septic. Moderate  doses  increase  the  gastric  secretions  and 
aid  digestion,  but  large  doses  destroy  pepsin,  arrest  secre- 
tion, and  interfere  with  absorption.  There  is  probably  no 
drug  more  extensively  used  than  alcohol.  It  is  useful  in 
indigestion,  spasmodic  colic,  cases  of  poisoning  by  aconite 
or  tobacco.  It  is  valuable  in  influenza  and  debilitating  dis- 
eases. In  blood-poisoning  whisky  combined  with  quinine 
is  one  of  the  most  effective  agents  we  have  in  controlling 
the  temperature  and  keeping  up  the  strength  of  the  animal. 

The  following  is  very  useful  in  some  cases  of  indigestion: 
Whisky  i  pt.,  quinine  (sulfate)  i  oz.,  water  i  pt.  Mix. 
Give  3  ounces  at  intervals  of  3  to  4  or  6  hours,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  case. 

Saltpeter  (Nitrate  of  Potash). — Dose  :  Horse,  i  tea- 
spoonful  to  half  an  ounce.  Large  doses  are  irritant  and 
cathartic  and  are  liable  to  cause  inflammation  of  the  bow- 
els. Medicinal  doses  are  discretive,  alterative,  antiseptic, 
febrifugal,  and  refrigerant.  In  febrile,  inflammatory,  and 
rheumatic  complaints  it  allays  fever,  lowers  excessive  tern- 
perature,  and  removes  by  the  kidneys  both  solid  and  fluid 
matters.  Dissolved  in  water  and  applied  externally  it  ab- 
stracts heat  and  is  a  useful  refrigerant.  Combined  with 
sulfate  of  iron  it  makes  an  excellent  tonic  for  horses 
recovering  from  debilitating  diseases. 


54  AGRICULTURE. 

Saltpeter  2  oz.,  dried  sulf.  iron  3  oz.  Mix.  Give  2 
teaspoonfuls  with  the  feed  2  or  3  times  daily. 

Alum. — Alum  is  an  astringent.  Chiefly  used  externally. 
Use  a  saturated  solution  in  hot  water.  Applied  to  the 
shoulders  of  horses  in  the  spring  it  toughens  the  skin  and 
prevents  collar-galls.  Useful  in  healing  harness-galls. 
One  of  the  best  lotions  to  apply  to  barb-wire  cuts  and  other 
wounds  of  a  similar  nature  to  prevent  growth  of  proud 
flesh.  Sometimes  dusted  over  the  surface  in  the  form 
of  burnt  alum  ;  not  so  effective  as  the  saturated  solution. 

Ginger. — Dose  :  Horse,  i  to  i  oz.  Ginger  stimulates 
the  various  mucous  membranes  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact.  Administered  internally  it  increases  the  gas- 
tric secretions,  facilitates  digestion,  and  checks  formation 
of  gas.  It  is  a  useful  adjunct  to  many  medicines  and  is 
given  with  tonics  and  stimulants.  Combined  with  purga- 
tives it  diminishes  their  liability  to  nauseate  and  gripe,  and 
also  hastens  their  effect.  It  is  used  in  all  domesticated  ani- 
mals to  fulfil  those  purposes,  and  is  especially  adapted  to 
cattle  and  sheep. 

Carbolic  Acid. — One  of  the  best  and  cheapest  disinfec- 
tants known.  For  dressing  fresh  wounds  it  may  be  used 
in  from  2  per  cent  to  5  per  cent  watery  solution.  In  oil  i 
part  to  15.  Inhalation  of  the  vapor  with  steam  is  of  great 
service  in  malignant  sore  throat  and  abscesses  following 
strangles.  Carbolic  acid  is  a  narcotic  irritant  poison,  and 
considerable  care  must  be  exercised  in  its  use,  as  it  is  liable 
to  become  absorbed  and  produce  poisonous  effects  if  ap- 
plied over  a  large  surface  in  a  strong  solution.  It  has  been 
highly  recommended  in  the  treatment  of  hog  cholera.  It 
may  be  given  to  hogs  in  doses  of  from  i  to  5  drops  well 
diluted. 

Pine  Tar. — Not  much  employed  internally.  It  is  a  good 
dressing  in  thrush  and  canker  of  the  horse's  foot.  It  is  also 
of  special  service  in  foot-rot  in  sheep.  It  acts  as  a  stimulant 
and  deodorizer  to  foul-smelling  wounds  and  prevents  the 
attacks  of  flies. 

Lime  Water. — Lime  water  is  prepared  by  slaking  a  small 
quantity   of   freshly  burned  lime  with   a  large   quantity  of 


VETERIKARY   SCIENCE.  55 

water,  allowing  the  undissolved  matter  to  settle  and  pour- 
ing off  the  clear  solution.  This  should  be  kept  in  tightly 
corked  bottles.  Lime  water  is  an  alkali  and  is  used  in  in- 
digestion, bloat,  and  diarrhoea,  especially  among  calves. 
Given  with  the  milk  in  the  proportion  of  1:5.  Scalds  and 
burns  may  be  treated  with  carron  oil,  which  is  composed  of 
lime  water  and  linseed  oil,  equal  parts.  Fresh  lime  in 
powder  and  solution  is  used  in  cleansing  and  disinfecting 
stables.  For  this  purpose  a  little  carbolic  acid  may  be 
added  to  the  solution. 

Sulfur.  — In  large  doses  it  is  an  active  irritant  poison.  In 
medicinal  doses  it  is  a  laxative,  alterative,  and  stimulates 
secretion.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  animal 
from  taking  cold  when  given  sulfur.  It  opens  the  pores  of 
the  skin  and  stimulates  perspiration.  Chiefly  used  in  treat- 
ing rheumatism  and  chronic  skin  diseases.  Dose  :  Horse, 
i  oz.  to  2  oz. 

SUPPRESSION    OF    HOG    CHOLERA    AND    SWINE 
PLAGUE.      (Craig.) 

Causes. — Hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  are  caused  by 
different  bacteria,  but  they  are  equally  dependent  for  the 
success  of  their  attacks  on  the  unhealthiness  of  the  hogs, 
due  in  most  instances  to  unwholesome  food  and  filthy  sur- 
roundings. The  causes  are  so  similar  and  the  symptoms 
are  so  much  alike  and  often  complicated  that  it  will  be  best 
to  consider  the  diseases  together  in  what  follows.  The 
germs  that  cause  them  are  easily  spread  over  large  terri- 
tories by  being  carried  by  cars,  wagons,  or  the  shoes  of  per- 
sons that  have  been  among  infected  hogs.  Most  frequently 
the  origin  of  the  outbreak  maybe  traced  to  the  importation 
of  hogs  from  diseased  districts  or  to  spread  from  such 
centers  by  running  streams. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptoms  usually  shown  in  attacks 
of  these  diseases  are  those  that  indicate  fever — a  rise  in 
temperature,  thirst,  loss  of  appetite,  and  redness  of  the  skin 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  and  inner  side  of  the  thigh. 
Usually  a  hog  so  diseased  begins  to  cough   when  started 


56  AGRICULTURE. 

from  its  bed.  A  constipated  condition  of  the  bowels 
changes  to  diarrhoea  as  the  disease  progresses,  and  this 
results  in  a  rapid  loss  of  flesh.  Dissection  generally  shows 
the  lungs  to  be  inflamed,  the  spleen  enlarged,  or  the 
lining  of  the  large  intestine  covered  with  numerous  ulcers. 
Prevention. — To  protect  hogs  from  attacks  of  these  dis- 
eases it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  following  recommen- 
■dations:  The  hogs  should  not  be  watered  at  running 
streams,  as  the  germs  are  readily  carried  by  these.  Per- 
sons coming  from  infected  districts  should  not  be  allowed 
to  go  near  your  hogs,  and  you  should  not  go  among  your 
neighbors'  hogs  if  they  are  sick.  When  other  hogs  are 
brought  to  your  farm,  assume  that  they  are  infected  and 
keep  thexTi  away  from  yours  at  least  for  six  weeks.  Observe 
as  much  cleanliness  as  possible  in  regard  to  food  and  sur- 
roundings. Feed  a  mixture  of  foods  in  a  sloppy  or  soft  con- 
dition, and  withhold  heavy  grain  feeding.  Disinfect  the 
quarters  of  the  hogs  by  sprinkling  liberally  with  a  five  per 
cent  solution  (by  volume)  of  carbolic  acid,  and  use  a  two  per 
cent  solution  of  the  same  for  washing  the  hogs. 

Treatment. — The  hogs  showing  any  of  the  symptoms 
described  should  at  once  be  separated  from  the  others,  and 
put  in  cheaply  constructed  quarters,  so  that  the  latter  may 
be  burned  when  no  longer  required.  The  well  hogs  should 
be  removed  to  disinfected  quarters.  Give  all  the  hogs  the 
following  mixture,  recommended  by  Dr.  Salmon,  Chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry: 

Wood  charcoal i  lb. 

Sulfur I  " 

Salt 2  lbs. 

Baking-soda 2    " 

Glauber's  salts. i  lb. 

Sodium  hyposulfite 2  lbs. 

Antimony  sulfid i  lb. 

This  should  be  given  in  soft  food  in  the  proportion  of  a 
teaspoonful  daily  to  a  two  hundred  pound  hog.  Remove 
all  refuse  from  the  pens  in  which  the  infected  hogs  were 
kept,  and  dig  out  the  old  soil,  put   in  fresh  earth,  disinfect 


VETERINARY    SCIENCE.  57 

with  carbolic  acid  solution,  and  allow  the  pens  to  remain 
vacant  for  at  least  six  months.  The  same  feeder  should 
not  attend  the  well  and  the  sick  hogs  unless  his  shoes  are 
changed  after  each  visit  to  the  sick  hogs.  The  bodies  of 
the  dead  hogs  should  be  thrown  into  a  rubbish  heap  and 
burned;  but  if  this  cannot  be  easily  carried  out,  a  long,  deep 
trench  should  be  dug,  and  when  the  carcases  are  thrown 
into  it  they  should  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  quicklime  and 
at  least  six  inches  of  earth.  When  the  disease  has  spent 
itself  or  has  been  effaced,  the  entire  mass  in  the  trench 
should  be  covered  with  six  inches  of  quicklime  and  at  least 
six  feet  of  earth.  The  place  selected  for  the  burial  of 
the  hogs  should  not  drain  towards  a  stream,  and  it  would 
be  better  to  fence  it.  The  dead  hogs  should  never  be  drawn 
over  the  ground,  and  the  wagon  used  should  be  washed 
with  a  disinfectant. 

During  the  last  few  years  the  sertmi  treatment  of  swine 
plague  and  hog  cholera  has  been  introduced  experimentally 
by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture.  Although  the  results  so  far  obtained  are  very 
promising,  further  studies  are  required  before  the  efficacy 
and  practicability  of  the  method  can  be  considered  proved. 
Farmers  whose  hogs  are  attacked  by  hog  cholera,  or  who 
fear  such  an  attack,  should  at  once  communicate  with  the 
Bureau  or  with  the  State  authorities  and  ascertain  what 
assistance  can  be  had. 

REMEDIES  FOR  THE  HORN  FLY. 

(Weed.) 

The  most  satisfactory  way  of  preventing  the  attacks  of 
the  horn  fly  is  to  apply  to  the  cattle  some  substance  that 
serves  as  a  repellent;  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  the 
use  of  a  cheap  oil,  such  as  fish  oil  or  crude  cotton-seed 
oil,  to  which  a  small  amount  of  carbolic  acid  or  pine  tar 
has  been  added.  Either  of  the  following  formulas  are 
recommended  for  this  purpose: 

I.  Crude  cotton-seed  oil,  or  fish  oil,  3  parts.  Pine  tar, 
I  part. 


58  AGRICULTURE. 

2.  Crude  cotton-seed  oil,  or  fish  oil,  lOO  parts.  Crude 
carbolic  acid,  3  parts. 

In  either  case  these  substances  are  to  be  mixed,  and  ap- 
plied rather  lightly  to  the  cattle  by  means  of  a  wide  pairt 
brush,  a  sponge,  or  even  a  woolen  cloth;  the  combination 
immediately  drives  off  the  flies,  and  remains  on  in  condi- 
tion to  keep  them  off  for  about  five  days.  A  combination 
of  kerosene  emulsion  and  tobacco  decoction  may  also  be 
used  with  good  effect. 

LIST  OR  DISINFECTANTS. 

(Sternberg.) 

The  most  useful  agents  for  the  destruction  of  spore- 
containing  infectious  material  are: 

1.  Fire. — Complete  destruction  by  burning. 

2.  Steam  under  Pressure^  105°  C.  (221°  F.,)  for  ten  minutes. 

3.  Boiling  in  Water  for  half  an  hour. 

4.  Chlorid  of  Lime  (should  contain  at  least  25  per  cent  of 
available  chlorin). — A  4  per  cent  solution. 

5.  Mercuric  Chlorid. — A  solution  of  1-500. 

For  the  destruction  of  infectious  material  which  owes 
its  infecting  power  to  the  presence  of  micro-organisms  not 
containing  spores,  any  of  the  following  agents  are  recom- 
mended: 

1.  Fire. — Complete  destruction  by  burning. 

2.  Boiling  in  water  for  ten  minutes. 

3.  Dry  Heat,  no"  C.  (230"  F.),  for  two  hours. 

4.  Chlorid  of  Lime. — A  2  per  cent  solution. 

5.  Solution  of  Chlorinated  Soda  (should  contain  at  least 
3  per  cent  of  available  chlorin).— A  10  per  cent  solution. 

6.  Mercuric  Chlorid.  —A  solution  of  I-2000. 

7.  Carbolic  Add. — A  5  per  cent  solution. 

8.  Sulfate  of  Copper. — A  5  per  cent  solution. 

9.  Chlorid  of  Zinc. — A  lO  per  cent  solution. 

10.  Sulfur  Dioxid  (this  will  require  the  combustion  of 
between  3  and  4  lbs.  of  sulfur  for  every  1000  cubic  feet 
of  air-space). — Exposure  for  twelve  hours  to  an  atmos- 
phere containing  at  least  4  volumes  per  cent  of  this  gas,  in 
presence  of  moisture. 


VETERINARY    SCIEXCE.  59 

RULiES   FOR   DISINFECTION    OF   STABLES. 

In  Case  of  Appearance  of  Contagious  Diseases. 

(TrUM  BOWER.) 

1.  Have  all  loose  litter,  hay,  and  rubbish  removed  and 
burned. 

2.  Have  all  manure  removed  to  land  where  cattle  have  no 
access. 

3.  Have  all  feed-troughs,  hay-racks  and  all  woodwork 
thoroughly  cleaned  by  washing  with  hot  water  in  which  two 
ounces  of  carbolic  acid  to  each  gallon  of  water  are  dissolved. 

4.  Thoroughly  whitewash  the  whole  of  the  interior  of  the 
building  with  a  whitewash  containing  one  pound  of  chloride 
of  lime  to  each  four  gallons  of  water.  Enough  freshly 
burned  quicklime  should  be  added  to  make  the  wash  show 
where  applied.  Especially  should  this  be  applied  to  the 
sides  and  front  of  the  stalls,  feed-troughs  and  hay-racks 
(inside  and  outside). 

5.  All  rotten  woodwork  to  be  removed  and  burned,  and 
replaced  with  new. 

6.  All  buckets,  forks,  shovels,  brooms,  and  other  objects 
used  about  the  stable  to  be  washed  and  covered  with  the 
same  solution. 

7.  All  drains  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected 
with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  one  pound  to  four  gal- 
lons of  water. 

8.  In  cases  of  glanders,  all  harness,  poles,  and  shafts  of 
wagons,  neck-yokes  and  pole-straps  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  with  hot  water  and  soap,  and  afterwards  oiled  with 
carbolized  oil  (one  part  of  carbolic  acid  to  ten  of  oil).  Before 
applying  the  oil,  harness  should  be  hung  up  in  the  open  air 
for  one  week. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF 
Dairies  and  Dairy  Farms  in  tlie  District  of  Colum- 
bia. 

Section  i. — No  building  shall  be  used  for  stabling  cows 
for  dairy  purposes  which  is  not  well  lighted,  ventilated, 
drained,  and  constructed. 


50  AGRICULTURE. 

Sec.  2. — No  building  shall  be  used  for  stabling  cows  for 
dairy  purposes  which  is  not  provided  with  a  suitable  floor, 
laid  with  proper  grades  and  channels  to  immediately  carry 
off  all  drainage;  and  if  a  public  sewer  abuts  the  premises 
upon  which  such  building  is  situated,  they  shall  be  con- 
nected therewith  whenever,  in  the  opinion  of  the  health 
officer,  such  sewer  connection  is  necessary. 

Sec.  3. — No  building  shall  be  used  for  stabling  cows  for 
dairy  purposes  which  is  not  provided  with  good  and  suffi- 
cient feeding-troughs  or  boxes,  and  with  a  covered  water- 
tight receptacle,  outside  of  the  building,  for  the  reception 
of  dung  and  other  refuse. 

Sec.  4. — No  water  closet,  privy,  cesspool,  urinal,  in- 
habited room,  or  workshop  shall  be  located  within  any 
building  or  shed  used  for  stabling  cows  for  dairy  purposes, 
or  for  the  storage  of  milk  or  cream,  nor  shall  any  fowl, 
hog,  horse,  sheep,  or  goat  be  kept  in  any  room  used  for 
such  purposes. 

Sec.  5. — The  space  in  buildings  or  sheds  used  for  stabling 
cows  shall  not  be  less  than  five  hundred  cubic  feet  for  each 
cow,  and  the  stalls  therefor  shall  not  be  less  than  four  feet 
in  width. 

Sec.  6. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  person  using  any 
premises  for  keeping  cows  for  dairy  purposes  to  keep  sucii 
premises  thoroughly  clean  and  in  good  repair  and  well 
painted  or  whitewashed  at  all  times. 

Sec.  7. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  person  using  any 
premises  for  keeping  cows  for  dairy  purposes  to  cause  the 
building  in  which  cows  are  kept  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned, 
and  remove  all  dung  from  the  premises  so  as  to  prevent  its 
accumulation  in  great  quantities. 

Sec.  8. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  any  person  having  charge 
or  control  of  any  premises  upon  which  cows  are  kept  to 
notify  the  health  officer,  in  writing,  of  the  existence  of  any 
contagious  or  infectious  disease  among  such  cows,  within 
twenty-four  hours  of  the  discovery  thereof,  and  to  thor- 
oughly isolate  any  cow  or  cows  affected  or  which  may  rea- 
sonably be  believed  to  be  infected,  and  to  exercise  such 


VETERIIirARY    SCIEN"CE.  61 

other  precautions  as  may  be  directed,  in  writing,  by  the 
health  officer. 

Sec.  9. — Any  person  using  any  premises  for  keeping 
cows  for  dairy  purposes  shall  provide  and  use  a  sufficient 
number  of  receptacles  made  of  non-absorbent  materials, 
for  the  reception,  storage,  and  delivery  of  milk,  and  shall 
cause  them  at  all  times  to  be  cleansed  and  purified,  and 
shall  cause  all  milk  to  be  removed  without  delay  from  the 
rooms  in  which  the  cows  are  kept. 

Sec.  10. — Every  person  keeping  cows  for  the  production 
of  milk  for  sale  shall  cause  every  such  cow  to  be  cleaned 
every  day  and  to  be  properly  fed  and  watered. 

Sec.  II. — Every  person  using  any  premises  for  keeping 
cows  shall  cause  the  yard  used  in  connection  therewith  to 
be  provided  with  a  proper  receptacle  for  drinking  water 
for  such  cows;  none  but  fresh,  clean  water  to  be  used  in 
such  receptacle. 

Sec.  12. — Any  enclosure  in  which  cows  are  kept  shall  be 
graded  and  drained  so  as  to  keep  the  surface  reasonably 
dry  and  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  water  therein,  ex- 
cept as  may  be  permitted  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
drinking  water;  no  garbage,  urine,  fecal  matter,  or  similar 
substances  shall  be  placed  or  allowed  to  remain  in  such  en- 
closure, and  no  open  drain  shall  be  allowed  to  run  through  it. 

Sec.  13. — These  regulations  shall  apply  to  all  premises 
upon  which  cow's  milk  is  produced  for  sale. 

Sec.  14. — That  any  person  violating  any  of  these  regula- 
tions shall,  on  conviction  in  the  police  court  of  said  district, 
be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than 
ten  dollars  for  each  and  every  offense,  to  be  collected  as 
other  fines  and  penalties  are  collected. 


62 


AGlllCL'LTURE. 


IV.  FIELD    CROPS. 

QUANTITY   OF   SEED   REQUIRED  TO  THE   ACRE. 

(Waring.) 


Designation.  C-J'^j^ 

Wheat I  J- to  2    bu. 

Barley i^  to  2^  bu. 

Oats 2    to  4    bu. 

Rye I    to  2    bu. 

Buckwheat |  to  i|- bu. 

Millet I    to  i|  bu. 

Corn ^  to  I    bu. 

Beans i    to  2    bu. 

Peas 2^  to  3I  bu. 

Hemp I    to  i^  bu. 

Flax i  to  2    bu. 

Rice 2    to  2^  bu. 


Designation. 

Broom-corn. ...  i 

Potatoes 5 

Timothy 12 

Mustard 8 

Herd  grass 12 

Flat  turnip 2 

Red  clover 10 

White  clover. ...  3 

Blue  grass 10 

Orchard  grass. ..  20 

Carrots 4 

Parsnips 6 


Quantity 
of  Seed! 

to 

libu. 

to 

10  bu. 

to 

24  qts. 

to  20  qts 

to  i6  qts 

to 

albs. 

to 

16  lbs. 

to 

4  lbs. 

to  15  lbs 

to 

30  lbs 

to 

5  lbs. 

to 

8  lbs. 

When  planted  in  rows  or  drills: 

Broom-corn i    to  i|  bu. 

Beans i^  to  2    bu. 

Peas li  to  2    bu. 


Onions 4  to  5    lbs. 

Carrots 2  to  2^  lbs. 

Parsnips 4105    lbs. 

Beets 4  to  6    lbs. 


SEED   USED  PER   ACRE.     (McKerrow.) 


Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Kye 

Peas 

Buckwheat 

Keans 

Oats  &  peas,  5  Oats 
mixed  for  hay  (  Peas 

Flax 

Millet 

Corn 

Potatoes 


Drilled, 
Bus. 


Broad- 
cast, 
Bus. 


y2 


y^xo  ^y» 


Clover  (red) 

Clover  (Alsike) 

Clover  (white)  .    .. . 
Clover  &  .^  8  clover 
timothy  <  2 timothy 

Timothy 

Orchard-grass.  . . . . 

Rape 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Beets 


Drilled, 
Lbs. 


Broad- 
cast, 
Lbs. 


FIELD    CROPS. 


63 


SEED    3IIXTURES    FOR    HAY    AND    PERMANENT 
PASTURES 

In  Pounds  per  acre. 


Names  of  Grasses. 

I. 

Flint. 

II. 

Law- 
son. 

III. 
For  Good 
Medium 

Soils. 
De  Laune 

IV. 

For  Wet 

Soils. 
De  Laund 

V. 

For 

Chalky 

Soils. 

De  Laune 

VI. 
For 
Perma- 
nent 
Lawns. 
Flint. 

2 

6 

I 

2 

2 

4 

10 

4 

3 
3 

Orchard  grass 

Meadow  fescue 

Tall  fescue 

2 
2 

2 

6 

3 

I 
I 

3 
8 

1 

2 

2 
2 

4 
4 

Redtop  

2 

2 
2 

3 
4 

Kentucky  blue  grass. 

Italian  ryegrass 

Perennial  rye  grass.., 

Timothy ... 

Rough  meadow  grass 
Wood  meadow  grass. 
Red  clover 

4 
4 
6 
3 

2 

6 
8 
3 
2 

2 

3 

4 
3 
3 

?* 

3 
2 

I 
I 
1 

I 
I 
I 
I 
14 
5 

2 

Perennial  red  clover. 
White  (Dutch)  clover 
Alsike 

3 

5 

2 

5 

I 

2 

2 

1 

Cock's- foot 

10 
2 
2 

I 

Fiorin                        . 

2 

3 

Cat's-tail 

I 

I 

40 

45 

41 

40 

38 

43 

For  the  Northwest  the  following  mixture  will,  according 
to  Shaw,  be  found  suitable: 

Timothy  4  lbs.,  blue  grass  3  lbs.,  redtop  2  lbs.,  orchard 
grass  2  lbs.,  meadow  fescue  i  lb.,  tall  oat  grass  i  lb., 
meadow  foxtail  i  lb.,  alsike  clover  3  lbs.,  white  clover  2  lbs., 
lucern  (alfalfa)  2  lbs.,  yellow  clover  i  lb.,  total  22  lbs. 

And  for  the  States  east  of  Michigan  and  for  the  provinces 
of  Canada  eastward  of  Lake  Huron: 

Lucern  (alfalfa)  5  lbs.,  orchard-grass  4  lbs.,  meadow 
fescue  and  alsike  clover  3  lbs.  each,  tall  oat  grass,  timothy, 
meadow  foxtail,  and  white  clover  2  lbs.  each,  yellow  clover 
I  lb.;  total  24  lbs. 


64  AGRICULTURE.  N 

Henry  recommends  the  following  mixture  of  grass  and  clover 
seed  (pounds  per  acre) : 

Timothy 7  pounds. 

Orchard 4  " 

Italian  rye 2  ** 

Perennial  rye 2  ** 

Tall  oat 2  *• 

Redtop 2  " 

Kentucky  blue 2  " 

Alfalfa 4  * 

White  clover i  ** 

Alsike  clover i  ** 

Red  clover 2  ** 

Total 29       " 

Flint  gives  the  following  mixtures,  among  others,  as  repre- 
senting the  common  ones  adopted  in  New  England  and  among 
farmers  throughout  the  country: 

1.  I  bu.  (6   lbs.)  redtop;  i   peck  (11  lbs.)  timothy  ;  5  lbs.  red 

clover. 

2.  I  bu.  (12   lbs.)  redtop  ;  i  peck  (11  lbs.)  timothy  ;  8  lbs.   rtd 

clover. 

3.  4  qts.  (i|  lbs.)  redtop  ;  i  peck  (11  lbs.)  timothy  ;  2  qts.  red 

clover;  i  pint  white  clover. 

4.  12  qts.  (16J  lbs.)  timothy;  4  lbs.  clover. 

5.  I  bu.  redtop;  i  bu.  timothy;  10  lbs.  clover. 

6.  r  peck  redtop;  i  peck  timothy;  10  lbs.  clover,  etc. 


FIELD    CROPS. 


65 


The  following  mixtures  of  seeds  are  suggested  for 
meadows  and  for  pastures  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  : 

A.     Hay   Mixtures. 


No.  I. 

Pounds. 

Tall  oat  grass 7° 

Red  clover 30 

(Sow  35  to  40  lbs.  per  acre.) 


No.  2. 

Red  top 30 

Orchard  grass 40 

Meadow  fescue 20 

Red  clover 10 

(Sow  40  to  45  lbs.  per  acre.) 


No.  3. 

Pounds. 

Italian  rye  grass 20 

Orchard  grass 25 

Red  clover 10 

Tall  oat  grass 20 

Red  top 25 

(Sow  35  to  40  lbs.  per  acre.) 


No.  4. 

Timothy 

Red  top 

Tall  oat  grass.  .  . 


40 
40 
20 


(Sow  40  lbs.  per  acre.) 


B.     Pasture   Mixtures. 


No.  I. 

Kentucky  blue  grass 25 

White  clover 10 

Perennial  rye 30 

Red  fescue 10 

Red  top 25 

(Sow  35  lbs.  per  acre.) 

No.  2. 

Canada  blue  grass 5 

Red  clover 5 

Orchard  grass 5 

Tall  oat  grass 5 

Perennial  rye  grass 20 

Red  top 35 

(Sow  40  to  45  lbs.  per  acre.) 


No.  3.     For  wet  pastures. 

Red  top 35 

Alsike 20 

Creeping  bent 15 

Perennial  rye 30 

(Sow  40  lbs.  per  acre.) 


No.  4. 


For  light  sandy 
soils. 


Red  fescue 50 

Red  top 25 

Kentucky  blue  grass 20 

White  clover 5 

(Sow  35  to  40  lbs.  per  acre.) 


GQ 


AGRICULTUllE. 


THK  WKIGHT  AND  AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF 
ORDINARY  CROPS  IN  POUNDS  PER  ACRE. 

(Warington.) 


Weight  of 
Crop, 

0 

H 

c 

So 
0 

2 

3 

J3 
(2 

W3 

i 

.2 

V 

c 

r 

CL. 

c 
0 

3 

At 
Har- 
vest. 

Dry. 

i 

Wheat : 
grain,  30  bu.. 
straw 

lbs. 

1,800 
3-158 

lbs. 

1,530 

2,653 

lbs. 

30 
142 

172 

lbs. 

33 
15 

48 

lbs. 

2.7 
51 

.lbs. 

9-3 

19  5 

28.8 

lbs. 

0.6 
2.0 

2.6 

lbs. 

I.O 
8.2 

9.2 

lbs. 

3-6 
3-5 

7-1 

lbs. 

14.2 
6.9 

21. 1 

lbs. 

0.1 
2.4 

2-5 

lbs. 

0.6 
96.3 

Total  crop.. 

4,958 

4,183 

96.9 

Barley  : 
grain,  40  bu.. 
straw 

2,080 
2,447 

1,747 
2,080 

46 
III 

35 
13 

2.9 

3-2 

9.8 
25-9 

I.I 

3-9 

1.2 

8.0 

4.0 
2.9 

16.0 
4-7 

0.5 

3-6 

11.8 

56.8 

Total  crop.. 

4,527 

3,827 

157 

48 

6.1 

35-7 

5-0 

9.2 

6.9 

20.7 

4.1 

68.6 

Oats  : 
grain,  45  bu.. 
straw 

i,8qo 
2,835 

1,625 
2,353 

51 
140 

38 
17 

^:l 

9.1 

37-0 

0.8 

4.6 

1.8 
9.8 

3-6 
5-1 

■I:: 

6.1 

19.9 

65.4 

Total  crop.. 

4,725 

3,978 

191 

22 

99 

55 

28 
15 

8.0 
1.8 

46.1 

6.5 
29.8 

5-4 
0.2 

II. 6 
o.S 

S.7 
3-4 

19.4 

10. 0 

8.0 

6.6 
0.2 

85.3 

Maize  : 
grain,  30  bu.. 
stalks,  etc.... 

1,680 
2,208 

1,500 
1,877 

o.S 

Total  crop.. 

3,888 

3,377 

121 

43 

.... 

36.3 

... 

18.0 

Meadow      hay, 
iJ^tons 

3,360 

2,822 

203 

49 
102 

5-7 
9.4 

50.9 
83.4 

9.2 
51 

32.1 

90.1 

14.4 
28.2 

4.2 

5-7 

12.3 
24.9 

22.8 

6.3 

14.6 

I.I 

4-3 

56.9 

Red  clover  hay, 
2  tons  

4,480 

3,763 

258 

7.0 

Beans: 
grain,  30  bu.. 
straw 

1,920 
2,240 

1.613 
1,848 

S8 
99 

77 
29 

4.4 
4-9 

24-3 
42.8 

0.6 
1-7 

2.9 
26.3 

0.4 
6.9 

Total  crop.. 

4,160 

3,461 

157 

106 

9-3 

67.1 

2-3 

29.2 

25-5 
48.5 

74  0 
19.7 

9.9 

9-5 

6.8 
2.4 

20.1 

22.4 
10.7 

33-1 

16.9 
4.8 

5-4 

10.9 
II. 2 

22.1 

6.8 
8.3 

7-3 

Turnips  : 
root,   17  tons, 
leaf 

38,080 
11,424 

3,126 
1,531 

2t8 
146 

63 
49 

192 

15.2 
5-7 

20.9 

108.6 
40.2 

148.8 

17.0 
7-5 

24.0 

2.6 
5-1 

Total  crop.. 

49,504 

4,657 

364 

7-7 

Swedes: 
root,  14  tons., 
leaf 

31,360 
4,704 

3,349 
706 

163 
75 

70 

28 

14.6 

3-2 

63.3 
16.4 

22.8 

Q.  2 

ii 

9-Z|      -, 

Total  crop.. 

36,064 

4,055 

238 

98 

17.8* 

79-7 

32.0 

J42.4 

9.2 

21.7 

15-1 

6.7 

*  Calculated  from  a  single  analysis  only. 


FIELD    CROPS. 


THE  WEIGHT    AND    AVERAGE    COMPOSITION   OF 
ORDINARY  CHOPS.— Con^'^^u^'^. 


Weight  of 
Crop. 

4; 

0 

1 

1 

3 

J3 

1 

4) 

.d 

c 

h 

d 

•n 
° 

S3 

u 

At 
Har- 
vest. 

Dry. 

i 

Mangolds: 
root,  22  tons., 
leaf   . 

lbs. 

49,280 
18,233 

lbs. 

5,914 
1,654 

lbs. 

426 
254 

lbs. 

87 
51 

lbs. 
4.9 
9.1 

ilbs. 
222.8 
77-9 

lbs. 
69.4 
49-3 

lbs. 

159 
27.0 

42.9 

lbs. 
18.3 
24.2 

42.5 

lbs 

36.4 
16.5 

52.9 

lbs. 
42.5 
40.6 

83.1 

lbs. 

8.7 

9.2 

Total  crop . . 

67.513 

7,568 

680 

138 

14.0 

300.7 

187.7 

17.9 

Potato : 
tubers,  6  tons. 

13,440 

3,360 

127 

47 

2.7 

76.5 

3-8 

0.8 

1.6 

3-4 

12.9 
73-1 

6.3 

3-4 
10.9 

21.5 

1-5 
9-3 

4.4 

2.6 

Beech: 

2,822 
2,975 

26 
166 

10 
39 

2.2 

leaf  litter.  . . . 

53-9 

TM  produce. 

5,797 

192 

49 

13.0 

2.4 

86.0 

14.3 

10.8 

56.1 

Scotch  pine: 

2,884 
2,845 

15 
42 

2-3 

4-3 

0.2 
1-7 

9.0 
16.8 

1-5 
4-3 

1.0 
3-3 

0.5 

leaf  litter 

■;.8 

T'l  produce. 

5,729 

57 

6.6 

3.6 

4-3 

7-9 

1.9 

0.4 
1-5 

1.9 

25.8 

8.2 
54-4 

62.6 

5.8 

1.8 
6.2 

8.0 

4-3 

1-3 
5-7 

7.0 

.... 

6.3 

Spruce  fir: 

3,064 
2,683 

20 
121 

2.P 

leaf  litter 

— - 

44-3 

T'l  produce. 

5,747 

141 

47-2 

SOILING    CROPS   ADAPTED    TO    NORTHERN    NEW 

ENGLAND    STATES.      (Lindsey.) 

(For  10  cows'  entire  soiling.) 


Kind. 

Seed  per  Acre. 

Time  of 

Seeding. 

Area. 

Time  of  Cutting 

Rye 

2  bush 

Sept.  10-15 

i^acre 

May  20— May  30 

Wheat 

20  lbs 

Julyis-Aug.i 
j-      Sept. 

une    I— fune  15 

Red  clover 

June  15 —  une  25 

Grass  and    clo-j 

]4  bu.  redtop. .. 
I  peck  timothy, 
lolbs. red  clover 

%acre 

June  15— June  30 

) 

Vetch  and  oats.  ■ 

3  bush,  oats 

50  lbs.  vetch  ... 
"            "      ... 

[-     April  20 
"      30 

^acre 

June  25— July  10 
July   10— July  20 

Peas  and  oats . .  \ 
"      "        "    — 

ii^bu.  Canada. 
1%  bu.  oats 

"      30 

,1 

June  25— July  10 
July   10— July  20 

Barnyard  millet.. 

I  peck  

May  10 

"    25 

^^acre 

July  25 — Aug.  10 
Aug.  10— Aug.  20 

Soja    bean     (me- 

dium green) — 

18  quarts 

"     20 

" 

Aug.  25-Sept.i5 

"     20 

"    30 

July  15 

14  acre 

Aug.  25— Sent  TO 

■   "      * 

Sept.  10— Sept  2o 

Hungarian 

t  bush • 

Sept.  20— Sept.  30 

Barley  and  peas-j 

1%  bu.  peas 

i}4  bu    barley.. 

\      Aug.    5 

I  acre 

Oct.     i—Oct.  20 

68 


AGRICULTURE. 


TIME  OF  PLANTING  AND  FEEDING  SOILING 
CROPS.     (Phelps.) 


Kind  of  Fodder. 


Rye  fodder 

Wheat  fodder 

Clover 

Grass  (from  grass-lands). 
Oats  and  peas 


Hungarian 

Clover  rowen  (from  3) 

Soja  beans 

Cow-peas — 

Row^en    grass   (from  grass- 
lands)  

Barley  and  peas 


Amount  of 
Seed 
per  Acre. 


2^^  to  3  bu. 

2I  to  3  bu. 

20  lbs. 

2  bu. each 


ij  bushels 

I  bushel 
I  bushel 


2  bu. each 


Approxi- 
mate Time 
of  Seeding. 


Sept.  1 
Sept.  5-10 
July  20-30 

April  10 


June  I 

May  25 
June  5-10 


Aug.  5-10 


Approximate 
Time  of  Feeding. 


May  10-20 
May  20,  June  5 
June  5-15 
June  15-25 
June  25,  July  10 
July  10-20 

"    20.  Aug.  I 
Aug.  I -10 

"     10-20 

*•    20,  Sept,  5 

Sept.  5-20 

"■    20-30 

Oct.  1-30 


The  dates  given  in  the  table  apply  to  Central  Connecticut  and  regions 
under  approximately  similar  conditions. 

REPLACING  WINTER-KILLED  CLOVER. 

The  following  brief  article  gives  a  list  of  forage  plants 
that  will  be  found  suitable  for  furnishing  green  feed  for 
cattle  and  other  farm  animals  in  regions  where  the  clover 
has  been  winter-killed.  It  was  originally  published  as  a 
newspaper  bulletin  from  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station 
and  is  written  with  special  reference  to  conditions  in  the 
Northwestern  States. 

Ifo7v  to  get  the  Quickest  Pasture. — A  field  of  oats  or  barley- 
will  furnish  the  quickest  pasture  it  is  possible  to  obtain, 
barley  being  a  little  earlier  than  oats.  Sow  oats  or  barley 
as  for  a  grain  crop,  and  when  the  young  plants  are  a  few 
inches  high,  turn  in  the  stock  and  treat  the  field  as  though 
it  were  a  pasture.  If  the  cattle  do  not  graze  the  field 
evenly,  run  the  mower  over  the  patches  where  the  growth 
is  excessive.  By  keeping  the  growth  short  it  will  last 
much  longer  than  if  allowed  to  head  out.  It  is  recom- 
mended that,  as  an  experiment,  clover  and  timothy  seed 
be  sown  with  a  part  at  least  of  the  oats  or  barley,  in  the 
hope  of  securing  a  stand  for  next  season.  The  farmer  who 
can  pasture- his  oat  or  barley  field  and  get  a  crop  of  clover 
started  at  the  same  time  will  be  one  year  ahead.  This  rec- 
ommendation must  be  regarded  as  an  experiment,  but  it 
has  been  successfully  tried  in  a  number  of  cases. 


FIELD    CROPS. 


69 


Oats  and  Peas,' 'l^&X.  the  farmer  also  put  in  a  patch  of  oats 
and  peas.  Sow  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  peas  per  acre,  cover- 
ing three  or  four  inches  deep  on  light  soil,  and  one  or  two 
inches  on  heavy  soil.  After  these  are  planted  sow  or  drill 
the  oats  in  the  usual  manner.  Cut  the  green  forage  for  the 
cattle,  or  cure  for  hay. 

Millet. — For  winter  hay  sow  millet  or  Hungarian  grass 
from  the  loth  to  the  30th  of  June,  using  from  a  bushel  to  a 
bushel  and  a  half  of  seed  per  acre.  When  the  seed-heads 
are  coming  into  blossom,  cut  and  cure  for  hay.  Millet  or 
Hungarian  grass  will  yield  from  one  ton  to  two  and  a  half 
tons  of  good  quality  hay  per  acre.  Horses  should  not  be 
given  over  one  feed  of  millet  hay  per  day. 

Corn  Fodder. — Any  variety  of  corn  will  do  for  green  or 
dry  forage,  the  early  kinds  being  the  most  suitable  for 
early  fall  feed.  Sweet  corn  is  very  satisfactory  because  the 
stalks  are  soft  and  palatable.  Plant  in  hills  or  drills  just  thick 
enough  to  decrease  the  size  of  the  ears  to  about  half  their 
normal  size.  Begin  feeding  as  soon  as  the  ears  are  glaz- 
ing, and  continue  with  the  dry  forage  throughout  the  win- 
ter. From  three  to  six  tons  per  acre  of  winter  forage,  suit- 
able for  all  kinds  of  farm  stock,  can  be  secured  from  acorn 
crop  grown  on  good  land.     (Henry.) 


CYLflNDRICAli  SILOS. 

Approximate  Capacity  of  Cylindrical  Silos  for  Well 
Matured  Corn  Silage,  in  Tons.    (King.) 


Inside  Diameter  in  Feet. 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

11::::: 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32.  .  - 

58.84 
62.90 
67-35 

71-73 
76.12 

80.62 

85-45 
90.17 

94-99 
99.92 
105.0 
109.8 
115-1 

66.95 
71-56 
76.52 
81.61 
86.61 
89.64 
97-23 
102  6 
108. 1 
"3-7 
119. 4 
124.9 
135-9 

75 
80 
86 
92 
97 
103 
109 
"5 
122 
128 
134 
141 
147 

58 

si 
14 

78 

6 
8 
8 
0 
3 
8 
I 
8 

84.74 
90.57 
96.84 
103-3 
109.6 
116. 1 
123.0 
129.8 
136.8 
143-9 
151-1 
X58.2 
165.7 

94.41 
100.9 
107.9 
115-1 
122. 1 
129.3 
137-1 
1447 
152.4 
160.3 
168.4 
176.2 
184.6 

104.6 
III. 8 
119. 6 
127-5 
135-3 
143-3 
151-9 
160.3 
168.9 
177.6 
186.6 
I9S-2 
204.6 

"5-3 
123.3 
131.8 
140.6 
149.2 
158.0 
167.5 
176.7 
186.2 
195.8 
205.7 
215-3 
235-5 

126.6 

135-3 
144.7 

154.3 
163.7 
173.4 
183.8 
194.0 
204.3 
214.9 
225.8 
236.3 
247-5 

138.3 
147.9 
158.1 
168.7 
179.0 
189.5 
200.9 
212.0 
223-3 

246.8 
258.2 
270-5 

150.6 
161.0 
172.2 
183.6 
194.9 
206.4 
218.8 
230.8 
243.2 
255 -8 
268.7 
281.8 
294.6 

163.4 
174-7 
186.8 
199-3 
211.5 
223.9 
237-4 
250.5 
263.9 
277.6 
291.6 
305-1 
319.6 

^0 


AGRICULTURE. 


Area  of  Feeding  Surface  and  Inside  Diameter  of  Cyl- 
indrical Silo  Required  to  Supply  Herds  of  Different 
Sizes.    (King.) 


Feeding  Surface. 
30  COWS. 150  square  feet 


Inside  Diameter. 
14        feet, 
16 
18 

19-75    '• 
21.25    ** 
22.75    '• 
24 
25.25    " 

NUMBER  OF  PLANTS  FOR  AN  ACRE  OF  GROUND. 


40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 


200 
250 
300 
350 
400 
450 
500 


Distance  apart. 
Inches. 


Number  of 
Plants. 


3  X  3 696,960 

4  X  4 392,040 

6  X  6 174,240 

9X9 77,440 

Feet. 

I  X  I  43,560 

li  X  li 19,360 

2  X   1 21,780 

2  X  2 10,890 

2i  X  2i ,  6,960 

3X1 14,520 

3X2 7,260 

3X3 4,840 

3i  X  3i 3,555 


4  X  I. 
4X2., 
4  X  3- 

4  X  4. . 

4i  X  4^. 

5  X  I.. 
5  X  2.. 

5  X  3.. 
5  X  4-. 

5  X  5.. 
5k  X  5i- 


10,890 
5,445 
3*630 
2,722 

2,151 
8,711 
4,356 
2,904 
2,178 
1,742 
1,417 


Distance  apart. 
Feet. 


Number  of 
Plants. 


6  X  6   1210 

6^  X  6i 1031 


X  7. 

X  8. 


9X 
10  X 


II 
12 
13 
14 
15 

16  X 
i6i  X 

17  X 

18  X 

19  X 

20  X 
25  X 


9.. 

10. , 
II. , 

12.  , 

I3-. 
14.. 

15.. 
16.. 

16^. 
17.. 
18.. 
19.. 

20.. 
25-. 


881 
680 
537 
435 
360 
302 

257 
222 

193 
170 
160 
150 
134 
120 
108 
69 


30  X  30 48 

33  X  33 

40  X  40 

50  X  50 

60  X  60 

66  X  66 


40 
27 
17 
12 
10 


FIELl)    CROP 


n 


NtritfBER  OF  HILLS  OR  PLANTS  OX  AX  ACRE  OF 
land,  for  any  distance  apart,  from  lO  in.  to  6  ft., 
the  lateral  and  longitudinal  distances  beinj?  un- 
equal.    (Waring.) 


10 
in. 

12 

in. 

il 

18 
in. 

20 
in. 

2  ft. 

f 

3  ft. 

'.¥ 

4  ft. 

t. 

5  ft. 

f 

6  ft. 

in 

lO 

62726 

12 

52272 

43560 

!■> 

41817 

S4«4« 

27878 

i8 

^484^ 

29040 

232^2 

19360 

20 

ft. 

2 

31363 

26136 

20908 

17424 

15681 

26n6 

21780 

17424 

I4S20 

no68 

10890 

^% 

20908 

17424 

13939 

11616 

10454 

8712 

0969 

^ 

17424 

14520 

ii6i6 

q68o 

8712 

7260 

5808 

4840 

3^ 

14935 

12446 

9953 

8297 

7467 

6223 

4976 

4148 

3565 

4 

115068 

10890 

8712 

7260 

6534 

5445 

4356 

3630 

,^111 

2722 

4V^ 

II6I6 

q68o 

7744 

6453 

5808 

4840 

3872 

3226 

2767 

2420 

2151 

S 

10454 

8712 

6969 

s8o8 

5227 

4356 

3484  2904 

2489 

2178 

193b 

1742 

5^ 

9504 

7920 

6336 

5280 

4752 

3960 

3168  2640 

2263 

1980 

1760 

1584 

1440 

6 

8712 

7260 

5808 

4840 

4356 

3630 

2904  ?420 

2074 

i8b5 

1613 

1452 

1320 

12 10 

YIELD  OF 


A  GOOD  CROP  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS 
PER  ACRE.  (McKerrow.) 


Oats 50  bus. 

Corn  (shelled) 50    " 

Barley 50    " 

Wheat  (winter) 30    " 

Wheat  (spring) 25    " 

Beans 15    " 


Rye 25  bus. 

Hay 2  tons. 

Potatoes 200  bus. 

Turnips 500     " 

Mangels 800     " 

Sugar  beets 500     " 


72  AGRICULTURE. 


V.    HORTICULTURE. 

USUAL  DISTANCES  FOR  PIjAXTING  VEGETABLES. 

(Bailey.) 

Asparagus Rows  3  to  4  ft.  apart,  i  to  2  ft.  apart  in  row. 

Beans,  bush..      2  to  3  ft.  apart,  i  ft.  apart  in  rows. 

"       pole. . .  3  to  4  ft.  each  way. 
Beet,  early  ...      In  drills  12  to  18  in.  apart. 

"      late "     "      2  to  3  ft.  *• 

Cabbage,  early  16  X  28  in.  to  18  X  30  in* 

late..  2  X  3  ft-  to  2^  X  3i  ft. 

Carrot In  drills  i  to  2  ft.  apart. 

Cauliflower. . .  2  X  2  ft.  to  2  X  3  ft. 

Celery Rows  3  to  4  ft.  apart,  6  to  9  in.  in  row. 

Corn,  sweet  . .         "     3  to  3^  ft.  apart,  9  in.  to  2  ft.  in  row. 

Cucumber 4  to  5  ft.  each  way. 

Egg-plant 3  X  3  ft. 

Lettuce i  X  li  or  2  ft. 

Melon,  Musk. .     5  to  6  ft.  each  way. 

"      Water..  7  to  8  ft.  each  way. 

Onion In  drills  from  14  to  20  in.  apart. 

Parsnip "       "      18  in.  to  3  ft.  apart. 

Peas "      "    early  kinds,  usually   in  double  row.,  6 

to  9  in.  apart';  late,  in  single  rows,  2  to  3 

ft.  apart. 

Pepper 15  to  18  in.  X  2  to  2|^  ft. 

Potato 10  to  18  in.  X  2^  to  3  ft. 

Pumpkin 8  to  10  ft.  each  way. 

Radish In  drills,  10  to  18  in.  apart. 

Rhubarb 2  to  4  ft.  X  4  ft. 

Salsify In  drills,  i^  to  2  ft.  apart. 

Spinach "      '*,  12  to  18  in.  apart.      , 

Squash 3  to  4  ft.  X  4  ft. 

Sweet-potato. .  2  ft.  X  3  to  4  ft. 

Tomato 4  ft.  X  4  to  5  ft. 

Turnip In  drills,  i^  to  2^  ft.  apart. 


'  HORTICULTURE.  73 

QUANTITY  OF  SEED  OF  VEGETABLES  REQUIRED 
TO   SOW   AN  ACRE.      (Bailey.) 

Asparagus 4  or  5  lbs.,  or  i  oz.  for  50  ft. 

of  drill. 

Beans,  dwarf,  in  drills i^  bushels. 

"       pole         **         10  to  12  quarts. 

Beet,  "         5  to  6  lbs. 

PuclcAvheat,  " i  bushel. 

Cabbage,  in  beds  to  transplant,  i  lb. 

Carrot,  in  drills 3  to  4  lbs. 

Cauliflower i  oz.  of  seed  for  1000  plants. 

Celery i  oz.  of  seed  for  2000  plants. 

Corn,  in  hills 8  to  10  quarts. 

Cucumber,  in  hills 2  lbs. 

Cress,  water,  in  drills 2  to  3  lbs. 

' '       upland,  in  drills 2  to  3  lbs. 

Egg-plant I  oz,  of  seed  for  1000  plants. 

Kale  or  sprouts 3  to  4  lbs. 

Lettuce i  oz.  of  seed  for  1000  plants. 

Melon,  musk,  in  hills 2  to  3  lbs. 

"      water,  in  hills 4  to  5  lbs. 

Mustard,  broadcast i  bushel. 

Onion,  in  drills 5  to  6  lbs. 

"       seed  for  sets,  in  drills. ..  30  lbs. 

"       sets,  in  drills 6  to  12  bushels. 

Parsnip,  in  drills 4  to  6  lbs. 

Peas  "       I  to  2  bushels. 

Potato  (cut  tubers) 7  bushels. 

Pumpkin,  in  hills , 4  to  5  lbs. 

Radish,  in  drills 8  to  10  lbs. 

Sage  "      8  to  10  lbs. 

Salsify  "       8  to  lolbs. 

Spinach        **       .". 10  to  12  lbs. 

Squash,  bush,  in  hills, 4  to  6  lbs. 

"       running,  in  hills 3  to  4  lbs. 

Tomato,  to  transplant i  lb. 

Turnip,  in  drills i  to  2  lbs. 

"       broadcast 3  to  4  lbs. 

Grass  (mixed  lawn). 2  to  4  bushels. 


74  AGRICULTURE. 

DISTANCES  APART  FOR  FRUIT  TREES, 
Time  Required  to  Bear  Fruit,  and  Longevity.    (Bailey.) 


Apples ... 

"      dwarf. 
Blackberry, . . 

Currant 

Gooseberry... 

Orange  and  I 

lemon       j 

Peach 

Pears 

Persimmon. . . 
Plum 

Raspberry ... 

Strawberry  . . 


30  to  40  ft.  each  way. 

10  ft.  each  way 

4x7  to  6x8  ft. 

4x5  feet 


Usual  Distances. 


4x5  feet 

25  to  30  ft.  each  way, 

16  to  20  ft.  each  way. 

to  30  ft.  each  way. 

20  to  25  ft.  each  way. 
16  to  20  ft.  each  way. 

3x6  feet 

I  X  3  or  4  feet 


Time  Required  to 
Bear. 


3  yrs.  Good  crop  in 
about  10  years 

I  yr.  Good  crop  in 
2-3  years  

I  yr.  Good  crop  in 
2-3  years 

1  yr.  Good  crop  in 
2-3  years 

2-3  yrs.  Good  crop 
2-3  years  later 

2  yrs.    Good  crop  in 

4  years 

3  or  4  yrs.  Fair  crop 
in  6-12  years 

I  to  3  yrs 

3  yrs.      Good  crop  in 

5  to  6  years 

1  yr.      Good   crop  in 

2  or  3  years 

I  yr.  Heaviest  crop 
usually  in  2  years. . . 


Average 
Profitable 
Longevity 
under  high 

Culture. 


25-40  yrs. 

8-12  yrs. 

20  years. 

20  years. 

so  or  more. 

8-12  yrs. 

50-75  yrs. 
25-40  yrs. 

20-25  yrs. 

8-12  yrs. 

3  years. 


HOPtTICULTUR:^.  75 

AVERAGE  YIELDS  PER  ACRE  OF  VARIOUS 
CROPS.      (Bailey.) 

Apples A  tree  20  to  30  years  old  may  be  expected 

to  yield   from    25  to  40  bus.  every  alter- 
nate year. 

Artichoke 200  to  300  bus. 

Beans,    green    or 
snap 75  to  120  bus. 

Bean,  Lima 75  to  100  bus.  of  dry  beans. 

Beet 400  to  700  bus. 

Carrots 400  to  700  bus. 

Corn 50  to  7S  bus.,  shelled. 

Cranberry 100  to  300  bus. ;  goo  bus.  have  been  reported. 

Cucumber About  150,000  fruits  per  acre. 

Currant 100  bus. 

Egg-plant I  or  2  large  fruits  to  the  plant  for  the  large 

sorts  like  New  York  purple,  and  from  3 
to  8  fruits  for  the  smaller  varieties. 

Gooseberry 100  bus. 

Grape 3   to    5    tons.     Good   raisin   vineyards    in 

California,    15    years   old,   will   produce 
from  10  to  12  tons. 

Horse-radish....     3  to  5  tons. 

Kohlrabi 500  to  1000  bus. 

Onion,  from  seed     300  to  800  bus. ;  600  bus.  is  a  large  average 
yield. 

Parsnip 500  to  800  bus. 

Pea,  green,  in  pod     100  to  150  bus. 

Peach In  full  bearing  a  peach-tree  should  produce 

from  5  to  10  bus. 

Pear A  tree  20  to  25  years  old  should  give  from 

25  to  45  bus. 

Pepper 30,000  to  50,000  fruits. 

Plum 5  to  8  bus.  may  be  considered  an  average 

crop  for  an  average  tree. 

Potato 100  to  300  bus. 

Quince 200  to  400  bus. 

Raspberry       and 

blackberry. ...     50  to  100  bus. 

Salsify 200  to  300  bus. 

Spinach 200  barrels. 

Strawberry. . . , . .     75  to  250  or  even  300  bus. 

Tomato 8  to  16  tons. 

Turnip 600  to  1000  bus. 


AGRICULTURE. 


RELATION  OF  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY, 

Dry  Matter,  and  Starch  Content  of  Potatoes. 

(Wolff.) 


Spec. 
Grav. 

Dry 
Sub- 
stance, 

Starch       c 
Con-        1 
tent.        ^ 

pec. 
rav. 

Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 

Starch       <; 
Con-        ^ 
tent.        ^ 

pec. 
rav. 

Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 

Starch 
Con- 
tent. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

1.080 

19.7 

13-9         I 

107 

25-5 

19.7         I 

134 

31-3 

25-5 

.081 

19.9 

14. 1 

108 

25-7 

19.9 

135 

31-5 

25-7 

.082 

20.1 

M-3 

109 

25.9 

20.1 

136 

31-7 

25-9 

.083 

20.3 

14.5          I 

no 

26.1 

20.3 

137 

31-9 

26.1 

.084 

20.5 

14.7 

III 

26.3 

20.5 

138 

32.1 

26.3 

.085 

20.7 

14.9 

112 

26.5 

20.7 

139 

32.3 

26.5 

.086 

20.9 

151 

113 

26.7 

20.9         I 

140 

325 

26.7 

.087 

21  2 

15-4 

114 

26.9 

21. 1 

141 

32.8 

27.0 

.088 

21.4 

15-6 

"5 

27.2 

21.4 

142 

33 -o 

27.2 

.089 

21.6 

15.8 

116 

27.4 

21.6 

143 

33-2 

27.4 

1.090 

21.8 

16.0 

117 

27.6 

21.8 

144 

33-4 

27.6 

.091 

22.0 

16.2 

118 

27.8 

22.0 

T45 

33-6 

27.8 

.092 

22.2 

16.4 

119 

28.0 

22.2 

146 

.33-8 

28.0 

•093 

22.4 

16.6          I 

120 

28.3 

22.5 

147 

34-t 

28  3 

.094 

22.7 

16.9 

121 

28.5 

22.7 

148 

34-3 

28.5 

.095 

22.9 

17. 1 

122 

28.7 

22.9 

149 

34-5 

28.7 

.096 

23.1 

17-3 

123 

28.9 

23.1         I 

150 

34-7 

28.9 

.097 

23-3 

17-5 

124 

29.1 

23-3 

151 

34-9 

29.1 

.098 

23-5 

17.7 

125 

29-3 

23-5 

152 

351 

29-3 

.099 

23-7 

17.9 

126 

295 

23-7 

153 

35-4 

29.6 

l.IOO 

24.0 

18.2 

127 

29.8 

24.0 

.154 

35-6 

29.8 

.101 

24.2 

18.4 

128 

30.0 

24.2 

•155 

35-8 

30.0 

.102 

24.4 

18.6 

129 

30.2 

24.4 

.156 

36.0 

30.3 

.103 

24.6 

18.8          I 

130 

30.4 

24.6 

■^^l 

36.2 

30.4 

.104 

24.8 

19.0 

131 

30.6 

24.8 

.158 

36.4 

30.6 

.105 

25.0 

19.2 

132 

30.8 

25.0 

159 

36.6 

30.8 

.106 

25.2 

19.4 

133 

31.0 

25.2          I 

160 

36.9 

3I-I 

UORTICULTUllE. 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY,    SUGAR   CONTENT,    AND 
BOILING-POINT   OF   3IAPL.E    SUGAR. 

(Cooke  and  Hills.) 


"  The  per  cents  of  sugar  given  are  calculated  for  a  fairly 
good  syrup.  The  relative  values  in  the  last  column  are 
based  on  these  per  cents,  but  will  be  nearly  the  same  for 
all  except  the  poorest  of  syrups.  The  relative  value  is 
made  use  of  as  follows:  A  weight  of  ii  pounds  per  gallon, 
and  35°  Baume  is  taken  as  the  standard;  dividing  the 
weight  of  the  syrup  by  ii  gives  the  number  of  standard 
gallons;  multiplying  the  price  that  is  to  be  paid  for  ii- 
pound  syrup  by  the  relative  value  figure,  and  dividing  by 
loo,  gives  the  price  to  be  paid  per  standard  gallon. 

''Example :   If  75  cents  a  gallon  is  to  be  paid  for  ii-pound 


78  AGRICULTURE. 

syrup,  how  much  should  be  paid    for  671   pounds  of  syrup 
testing  31°  by  the  Baume  hydrometer? 
671  -f-  II  =  61  standard  gallons. 

75  X  88  -r-  100  =  66  cents  per  gallon. 

61  X  66  =  $41.26,  price  to  be  paid." 


WEIGHT    OF    SUGAR    OBTAINED    FROM   100   LBS. 
OF    3IAPLE    SYRUP 

Weighing  11  lbs.  to  the   Gallon,  when  Sugared  Ofl"  at 
Different  Temperatures.     (Cooke  and  Hills.) 


^ 

^ 

^ 

.2 

"5  u 

3'£ 

"tJc-j 

'v    ■ 

Ha 

IS. 

u 

.en 

yn 

f,'^ 

Temp 
of  S 
Off. 

.w 

OC/3 

^c/j 

< 

br.o 

X 

to 

< 

X 

F 

°  Fahr. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

°  Fahr. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

232 

82.7 

82.0 

83.3 

238 

79-5 

78..? 

80.7 

233 

81.9 

80.5 

82.8 

239 

79.2 

78.4 

80.3 

234 

81.2 

80.0 

81.9 

240 

78.7 

78.2 

79  7 

235 

80.8 

79-5 

81.6 

241 

78.5 

77-9 

79-3 

236 

80.5 

79-5 

Si. I 

242 

78.1 

77-4 

78.9 

237 

80.0 

79.0 

80.9 

HORTICULTUEE. 


79 


TEMPERATURES        TO        WHICH        PERISHABLE 
GOODS    MAY   BE    SUBJECTED   WITHOUT   IN- 
JURY,     (U.  S.  Depaktment  of  Agriculture.) 


Name  of  Article. 


Lowest  0 

utside 

^i 
P 

Temperature. 

k 

Is 

y 

tl 

■^i? 

i 

II 

^•1 

°F. 

°F. 

°F. 

op 

20 

10 

—  10 

75 

28 

15 

—  10 

75 

35 

24 

ID 

70 

28 

22 



70 

50 

32 

90 

32 

26 

65 

26 

20 

70 

2S 

20 

zero 

75 

32 

25 

10 

80 

22 

15 

70 

10 

zero 

65 

30 

25 

10 

75 

28 

20 

zero 

32 

20 

65 

30 

20 

zero 

80 

10 

zero 

6,=; 

3=; 

20 

—  10 

34 

20 

zero 

I'? 

zero 

6s 

28 

20 

65 

^a 

20 

10 

75 

26 

15 

70 

32 

20 

zero 

75 

32 

28 

zero 

75 

28 

25 

zero 

25 

20 

zero 



20 

IS 

zero 

20 

10 

80 

28 

20 

zero 

80 

32 

20 

75 

32 

20 

70 

32 

20 

10 

80 

32 

20 

80 

32 

25 

zero 

75 

3,S 

32 

zero 

75 

3S 

25 

10 

80 

3S 

28 

ID 

80 

20 

15 

65 

20 

10 

— 

90 

35 

10 

—  10 

15 

15 

75 

33 

-5 

-10 

t5 

25 

15 

zero 

70 

20 

10 

90 

33 

28 

10 

90 

15 

zero 

75 

20 

10 

85  i 

Remarks. 


Apples,  in  bbls 

"       loose  

Apricots,  baskets 

Asparagus 

Bananas  

Beans,  snap 

Beets. 

Cabbage,  early  or  late 

Cantaloupes 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Cheese 

Cranberries 

Cucumbers 

Eggs,  bbrd  or  crated 

Fish. 

Flowers 

Grapes 

Kale 

Leek 

Lemons 

Lettuce 

Mandarins 

Milk 

Olives,  in  bulk 

"•        "  glass 

Onions,  boxes 

Onions 

Oranges 

Parsley 

Parsnips 

Peaches, freshjb'skets 

Peas 

Pineapples 

Plums 

Potatoes,  Irish 

'*         sweet 

Radishes 

Rice 

Shrubs,  roses,  or  trees 

Spinach 

Strawberries 

Tangerines 

Thyme 

Tomatoes,  fresh 

Turnips,  late 

Watermelons 


Covered  with  straw. 
Packed  in  straw^. 

In  boxes  covered  with  mosa. 
Bulk  or  boxes  with  straw. 
In  barrels  or  crates. 
In  crates. 
Barrels  or  crates. 

In  barrels  with  straw. 
Packed  in  crates. 


In  boxes  with  moss. 

In  barrels  always  iced. 
Packeci  in  moss. 
Packed  in  cork. 
Packed  in  boxes  or  crates. 
Packed  in  boxes. 
In  boxes  or  crates. 
In  boxes  or  crates. 
In  boxes. 

In  barrels. 


In  barrels,  boxes,  or  crates. 
Baskets, boxes, bbls.,  or  crates. 
In  baskets. 
In  baskets  or  barrels. 

In  baskets  or  barrels. 

In  barrels,  crates,  or  in  bulk. 

In  boxes  with  paper. 

In  barrels  or  baskets. 

In  barrels  or  baskets. 

In  baskets. 

In  baskets  or  sacks. 

In  canvas  or  sacking. 

In  barrels  or  crates. 

In  boxes. 

In  small  baskets. 

In  barrpl';. 

/n  barrels  and  in  bulk. 


80 


AGRICULTURE. 


TEMPERATURES  INJURIOUS  TO  PLANTS. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

The  following  table  shows  the  temperatures  at  which  the 
plants  mentioned  are  liable  to  receive  injury  from  frost. 
The  temperatures  are,  as  nearly  as  possible,  those  of  the 
air  in  contact  with  the  plant  itself. 


Plant  or  Fruit. 


Almonds 

Apples 

Apricots 

Asparagus  . 

Bananas 

Barley 

Beans 

Beets 

Cabbage  

Cantaloupes 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Cucumbers    

Cymlings  or  squash. 

Flowers  * 

Grapes .. 

Grape-fruit 

Lemons   

Lettuce 

Mandarins 

Oats 

Okra 

Olives 

Onions 


Oranges  t 

Parsnips 

Peaches  

Pears 

Peas 

Plums 

Potatoes:  Irish 

Sweet  

Prunes 

Radishes 

Shrubs,  trees,  or  roses. 

Spinach 

Strawberries . . 

Tangerines 

Tomatoes 

Turnips , 

Watermelons 

Wheat 

Walnuts,  English 


In  Bud. 


26-30 


In 

Blossom. 


28-32 


InSetting 
Fruit. 


*  Depends  on  variety. 
$  Ripe.        §  Green. 


t  Injured  at  2  higher  if  continued  4-6  houis. 


HORTICULTURE. 


81 


BEST  TEMPERATURES  FOR  PRESERVING 
HORTICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 

(Faville  and  Hall.) 


Product. 

Temperature, 
Degrees. 

Package. 

Time. 

Apples,  summer 

Apples,  winter 

Pears 

Peaches 

38  to  42 

32  to  35 

33  10  3-i 
36  to  38 
38  to  40 
38  to  40 

40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 

38  to  42 
38  to  40 
35 

34  to  38 
34  to  40 
36  to  40 
34 

Barrels  or  boxes. 

Crates. 

In  sawdust.in  boxes. 

Crates. 

Quart  boxes. 

Crates. 

Boxes. 

2  to  4  months, 
q  to  8  months. 

2  to  4  montiis. 
2  to  4  wreks. 
6  to  8  weeks 

Grapes                

Plums 

2  to  4  weeks. 
I  to  3  weeks. 
8  to  12  weeks 

Berries  and  cherries.. 
Bananas                   .... 

Lemons,  oranges 

Pigs   raisins 

8  to  12  weeks. 
8  to  12  weeks 

Watermelons  .... 

3  to  6  weeks. 
2  to  3  weeks. 
2  to  4  weeks. 
1  to  3  weeks. 

Tomatoes 

Cucumbers        .   . . 

Crates. 

Boxes. 
Barrels. 

Boxes. 

Celery 

Cranberries.         ...   . 

Onions 

Potatoes  

Asparagus,  cabbage.. 

THE    PRESERVATION    OF    SOFT    FRUITS    FOR 
EXHIBITION    PURPOSES. 

(Department  of  Agriculture,  Ottawa,  Canada.) 

To  preservestrawberries, raspberries,  and  other  soft  fruits, 
the  following  mixtures  are  recommended.  The  alcohol  is 
not  necessary  except  where  the  bottles  will  be  exposed  to 
frost.  The  chemicals  mentioned  in  the  list  may  be  obtained 
at  any  drugstore. 

General  Dii-ections. — Select  the  finest  specimens  of  the 
fruit  both  as  to  form  and  size.  Handle  them  carefully  to 
avoid  all  bruising,  and  place  them  in  bottles,  arranging  the 
specimens  so  as  to  show  them  to  the  best  advantage.  Fill 
each  bottle  to  the  neck  with  fruit,  then  pour  on  the  fluid 
recommended,  filling  the  bottles  to  within  half  an  inch  of 
the  stopper  so  as  to  entirely  cover  the  fruit.  Then  place 
the  stopper  in  the  bottle  and  run  a  little  beeswax  or  paraf- 
fin over  the  joint  to  make  it  air-tight.  Tie  the  stopper 
down  with  a  piece  of  strong  cotton  and  attach  to  each  bottle 


82  AGRICULTURE, 

a  label  containing  the  following  particulars  :  Name  of  the 
variety  of  fruit,  name  and  address  of  the  grower.  Write 
also  in  each  case  in  one  corner  of  the  label  the  letter  sug- 
gested to  indicate  the  fluid  which  has  been  used.  Wrap  the 
bottles  in  paper  to  exclude  the  light,  and  preserve  in  a  cellar 
or  other  cool  place  until  required  for  shipment.  Strawber- 
ries and  raspberies  should  be  cut  from  the  plants  or  bushes 
with  a  pair  of  scissors,  leaving  a  short  piece  of  stem  at- 
tached to  each. 

Fluid  no.  i. — Formalin  (formaldehyde),  one  pound  (i6 
oz.) ;  water,  44  pounds  ;  alcohol,  5  pints.  Allow  the  mix- 
ture to  stand,  and  should  there  be  any  sediment,  pour  oft 
the  clear  liquid  and  filter  the  remainder  through  filtering- 
paper.  This  two-per-cent.  solution  of  formalin  has  been 
found  very  useful  for  preserving  strawberries  so  as  to  give 
them  a  natural  appearance. 

In  each  case'  where  this  fluid  is  used,  mark  F  on  one 
corner  of  the  label. 

Fluid  No.  2. — A  solution  of  boric  acid  in  the  proportion 
of  two  per  cent.  Dissolve  one  pound  of  boric  (boracic)  acid 
in  45  pounds  of  water,  agitate  until  dissolved,  then  add  5 
pints  of  alcohol.  If  the  fluid  is  not  clear,  allow  it  to  stand 
and  settle,  when  the  clear  upper  portion  may  be  poured  off 
and  the  remainder  filtered. 

In  each  case  where  this  fluid  is  used,  mark  B  on  one 
corner  of  the  label. 

Fluid  No.  3. — A  solution  of  zinc  chlorid  in  the  propor- 
tion of  three  per  cent.  Dissolve  one-half  pound  of  zinc 
chlorid  in  15  pounds  of  water,  agitate  until  dissolved,  then 
add  if  pints  of  alcohol.  Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  until 
settled,  then  pour  off  the  clear  fluid  and  filter  the  remainder. 

In  each  case  where  this  fluid  is  used,  mark  Z  on  one 
corner  of  the  label. 

Fluid  No.  4. — Sulfurous  acid,  i  pint  ;  water,  8  pints  ; 
alcohol,  I  pint.  Allow  the  mixture  to  stand,  and  should 
there  be  any  sediment,  pour  off  the  clear  liquid  and  filter 
the  remainder. 

In  each  case  where  this  fluid  is  used,  mark  S  on  the 
corner  of  the  label. 


HORTICULTURE.  83 

List  of  Fruits  with  the  N'ames  of  Preservatives  to  be  Used  in 
Each    Case. 

(Where  two  fluids  are  named  either  may  be  used,  but  the 
first  named  is  preferred.) 

Strawberries. — Solution  No.  i,  formalin. 

Raspberries,  Red. — No.  2,  boric  acid  ;  No.  i,  formalin. 

Raspberries,  White. — No.  4,  sulfurous  acid  ;  No.  3,  zinc 
chlorid. 

Raspberries,  Black. — No.  2,  boric  acid. 

Blackberries. — No.  2,  boric  acid  ;  No.  i,  formalin. 

Cherries,  Red  and  Black. — No.  i,  formalin  ;  No.  2,  boric 
acid. 

Cherries,  White. — No.  4,  sulfurous  acid. 

Currants,  Red. — No.  i,  formalin  ;  No.  2,  boric  acid. 

Currants,  White. — No.  4,  sulfurous  acid  ;  No.  3,  zinc 
chlorid. 

Currants,  Black.— No.  2,  boric  acid. 

Gooseberries. — No.  i,  formalin  ;  No.  2,  boric  acid. 

Apples,  Green  and  Russet. — No.  3,  zinc  chlorid. 

Apples,  more  or  less  Red. — No.  2,  boric  acid. 

Apples,  White  and  Yellow. — No.  4,  sulfurous  acid. 

Pears,  Russet. — No.  3,  zinc  chlorid. 

Pears,  Green  or  Yellow. — No.  4,  sulfurous  acid. 

Plums,  dark-colored  varieties. — No.  i,  formalin  ;  No.  2, 
boric  acid. 

Plums,  Green  or  Yellow. — No.  4,  sulfurous  acid. 

Peaches,  Apricots,  Nectarines,  or  Quince?. — No.  4,  sulfur- 
ous acid  ;  No.  3,  zinc  chlorid. 

Grapes,  Red  or  Black. — No.  i,  formalin  ;  No.  2,  boric 
acid. 

Grapes,  Green  or  Yellow. — No.  4,  sulfurous  acid. 


84  AGRICULTURE. 

VI.  SEEDS. 

SEED-TESTING   FOR   THE    FARMER. 

By  the  late  Gilbert  H.  Hicks,  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.* 

Not  less  important  than  good  soil  and  suitable  cultivation 
is  seed  of  the  best  obtainable  quality.  In  no  feature  of 
farm  practice  is  niggardly  economy  or  lack  of  proper  atten- 
tion more  productive  of  disappointment  and  loss  than  in 
the  failure  to  provide  proper  seed  for  sowing.  The  market 
gardener  is  fully  alive  to  this  fact,  and  makes  the  purchase 
of  desirable  seed  his  foremost  care.  He  wants  not  only 
seed  which  will  grow,  but  also  that  which  will  produce  an 
even  stand  and  yield  a  large  crop  of  the  very  best  vegetables. 
The  matter  of  paying  a  few  cents  or  even  a  dollar  extra 
per  pound  is  to  him  of  no  significance,  since  he  knows  by 
long  experience  that  the  increased  value  of  his  crop  will 
far  outweigh  the  extra  cost  of  the  seed. 

With  many  farmers  this  care  in  the  selection  of  seed  is 
often  lacking.  Frequently  the  land  is  all  tilled  and  read;,- 
for  sowing  before  the  seed  is  bought.  It  is  then  too  late 
to  give  it  a  careful  preliminary  test,  even  if  the  owner  de- 
sired to  do  so.  This  results  very  often  in  a  poor  stand, 
perhaps  in  a  failure  of  the  crop,  or  in  the  scattering  of 
hordes  of  weeds  all  over  the  farm,  which  usurp  the  place 
of  the  cultivated  plants,  and  cost  infinite  trouble  in  their 
eradication.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  case  of 
the  clovers,  grasses,  and  other  forage  plants.  No  matter 
how  poor  the  seed  turns  out  to  be,  after  once  sown  it  is  too 
late  to  secure  any  redress  from  the  seedsman.  Besides, 
there  are  very  few  places  in  this  country  where  one  can 
get  seed  tested  in  order  that  its  real  value  may  be  ascer- 
tained before  sowing.  It  becomes,  then,  a  matter  of  great 
importance  to  the  farmer  to  provide  himself  with  some 
simple  but  efficient  means  for  testing  his  seed  before  it  is 
sown. 

All  seed  which  is  to  fee  used  for  spring  sowing  should  be 
procured  whenever  possible  in  the  previous  fall  or  winter. 

*  Revised  bj'  A.  J.  Pieters,  in  Charge  of  Pure  Seed  Investigations,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


SEEDS.  85 

The  long  winter  months  will  give  ample  opportunity  for 
close  examination  of  the  seed,  and  if  any  of  it  be  found  of 
inferior  quality,  as  will  not  infrequently  prove  to  be  the  case, 
there  will  be  plenty  of  time  to  replace  it  with  a  desirable 
article.  In  all  cases  seed  should  be  bought  of  the  most  re- 
liable seedsmen.  In  many  instances  it  will  pay  to  get  seed 
from  the  large  dealers,  as  they  have  first-class  opportu- 
nities for  handling  the  very  best  seed  in  the  country.  The 
extra  cost  for  carriage  will  be  a  small  item  compared  with 
the  chance  for  obtaining  good  seed. 

No  matter  from  what  source  the  seed  is  obtained,  nor 
how  reliable  the  dealer,  every  farmer  should  test  each  lot 
of  seed  he  expects  to  plant.  Besides  learning  its  quality, 
he  will  often  obtain  valuable  information  concerning  the 
depth,  temperature,  and  amount  of  moisture  needed,  etc. 
Furthermore,  if  the  seed  fails  to  come  up  well,  the  planter 
will  have  some  intelligent  data  for  ascertaining  the  reason, 
and  will  not  be  obliged  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  state- 
ment of  seed  catalogues,  which  convey  the  impression  that 
failure  to  germinate  is  more  likely  to  be  the  fault  of  the 
outdoor  conditions  than  of  the  seed  itself. 

Good  seed  is  marked  by  three  characteristics  :  purity — 
or  freedom  from  foreign  matter,  whether  seeds  of  weeds 
or  other  plants  ;  vitality—ox  capacity  for  sprouting  under 
favorable  conditions  ;  and  genuineness — or  trueness  to 
name.  If  any  of  these  qualities  be  lacking,  the  seed  is  un- 
worthy of  general  trial. 

Purity. — Most  vegetable  seeds,  especially  if  grown  in 
America,  are  quite  free  from  admixture.  Seed  of  the  cab- 
bage family,  however,  if  grown  abroad,  and  sometimes 
that  of  American  origin,  may  contain  a  mixture  of  wild 
mustard  or  similar  seed,  often  so  near  like  the  good  seed 
as  to  be  almost  indistinguishable  from  it. 

Clover  and  grass  seed  is  very  likely  to  contain  more  or 
less  seed  of  noxious  weeds  or  inferior  grasses  ;  hence  a 
careful  purity  test  is  necessary  in  such  cases.  Hairy  vetch 
and  other  leguminous  forage  seeds,  excepting  the  clovers, 
generally  come  from  Europe  and  are  frequently  impure. 
Oiten  it  will  require  considerable  care  to  detect  impurities 


86  AGRICULTURE. 

in  the  seeds  of  forage  plants,  and  in  case  of  any  doubt 
samples  of  such  seed  should  be  sent  to  the  nearest  experi- 
ment station  or  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  ex- 
amination. 

Purity  tests  are  usually  made  by  weighing  out  a  few 
ounces  of  seed  which  has  been  well  stirred  up  so  as  to 
make  the  sample  uniform.  This  seed  is  placed  upon  a 
pane  of  glass  under  which  is  a  piece  of  light-colored  paper, 
and  the  sample  is  carefully  gone  over  seed  by  seed  with  a 
small  forceps  until  all  the  impurities  are  separated  out. 
After  again  weighing,  the  percentage  of  impurity  is  easily 
obtained.  If  the  impurity  consists  of  chaft  or  dirt,  the  loss 
will  consist  only  in  paying  for  something  which  will  not 
grow.  This  will  render  necessary  the  sowing  of  more  than 
the  usual  amount  of  seed  to  the  acre.  If  weed  seeds  are 
present,  there  will  be  greater  or  less  loss  according  to  the 
character  of  the  weeds.  Such  seeds  as  Canada  thistle, 
dodder,  Russian  thistle,  chess,  wild  mustard,  cockle,  plan- 
tain, black  medic,  daisy,  penny-cress,  wild  carrot,  wild 
oats,  and  a  few  others,  are  serious  pests.  Every  farmer 
should  be  able  to  recognize  these  weed  seeds,  and  avoid  all 
seed  which  contains  any  of  them  even  in  small  amounts. 
He  should  also  be  familiar  with  the  ordinary  grass  seeds  of 
trade,  such  as  June  grass,  orchard  grass,  the  common  fes- 
cues, red  top,  tall  meadow  oat  grass,  etc.  Grass-seed 
mixtures  almost  invariably  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
seed  of  inferior,  if  not  worthless,  species,  dirt,  and  chaff, 
and  should  be  avoided.  It  is  much  better  to  find  out  what 
grasses  are  adapted  to  one's  fields  or  pastures  and  to  buy 
such  seed  separately,  mixing  it  at  home. 

If  scales  are  not  at  hand,  the  amount  of  pure  seed  in  a 
given  sample  can  be  approximately  learned  by  placing  the 
pure  seed  in  a  small  bottle  with  the  impurities  in  another 
bottle  of  similar  shape  and  size.  The  names  of  the  foreign 
seeds  may  be  learned  from  some  botanist  or  experiment 
station.* 

*  The  following  standards  o/ />urity  s.re  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture : 
Asparagus,  beans,  buckwheat,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery, 


SEEDS.  87 

After  determining  the  per  cent  of  pure  seed  in  a  sample, 
the  gcrminative  ability  should  be  ascertained.  This  is  even 
more  important.  One  can  judge  fairly  well  of  the  purity 
of  seed  by  a  casual  inspection,  but  no  one  can  tell  by  its 
looks  whether  a  seed  is  capable  of  sprouting  or  not.  Con- 
sidering the  great  amount  of  labor  and  expense  involved, 
it  is  surprising  that  so  few  farmers  test  their  vegetable  and 
field  seeds  before  they  are  sown. 

Even  fresh  seed  is  sometimes  incapable  of  germination 
through  improper  care  in  harvesting  or  cleaning.  Nor 
can  fresh  seed  be  told  by  its  appearance  with  certainty. 
Add  to  this  the  fact  that  old  seed  is  frequently  offered  for 
sale,  and  there  is  no  lack  of  reason  for  testing  the  sprout- 
ing capacity  of  the  seed  one  intends  to  sow. 

If  the  heat  and  moisture  are  properly  controlled,  seed- 
testing  will  be  found  a  very  simple  matter.  Seventy  to 
eighty  degrees  Fahrenheit  must  be  maintained  during  the 
day,  with  a  fall  of  not  more  than  twenty  degrees  at  night, 
and  the  seed  must  be  kept  constantly  damp,  but  not  wet. 
A  good  plan  is  to  plant  a  hundred  seeds  of  average  quality 
— that  is,  an  average  number  of  large,  small,  plump,  and 
shrivelled  ones,  etc. — in  moist  soil  in  a  box  or  in  a  small 
flower-pot  which  is  set  inside  of  a  large  pot  also  containing 
soil.  Water  as  needed  is  added  from  time  to  time  in  the 
larger  pot  and  the  whole  is  kept  covered  so  as  to  prevent 
evaporation  and  sudden  cooling.  When  the  seeds  begin 
to  come  up,  the  pots  should  be  exposed  to  the  light.  After 
about  two  weeks  for  most  seeds  the  seedlings  are  counted 
and  the  percentage  of  sprouts  ascertained.  If  the  soil  has 
been  previously  heated  to  kill  all  weed  seeds,  and  proper 
precautions  have  been  taken,  such  a  test  will  give  a  good 
indication  of  the  value  of  the  seed.     To  make  sure,  a  dupli- 

collards,  Indian  corn,  cow  pea,  cucumber,  eggplant,  lettuce, 
melon,  millet  (common  and  pearl),  oats,  okra,  onion,  peas, 
pumpkin,  radish,  rutabaga,  salsify,  squash,  tomato,  turnip, 

vetch  (hairy) 99  per  cent. 

Alfalfa,  beets,  crimson  clover,  red  clover,  cotton,  Kafir  corn, 

parsley 98      "      " 

Parsnip  97      "       " 

Hungarian  brome  grass,  carrot,  white  clover,  alsike  clover. .  .95      "       " 
June  grass,  poa  compressa 90     "      " 


88  AGRICULTURE. 

cate  lot  of  one  hundred  seeds  should  be  tested  at  the  same 
time  under  the  same  conditions  and  the  results  compared. 
If  the  variation  exceeds  ten  per  cent,  the  tests  should  be 
repeated  until  the  source  of  error  is  discovered.  Grasses 
and  very  fine  seed  will  require  more  care  than  other  kinds. 
Such  seed  should  be  barely  covered  with  soil,  while  in  all 
cases  too  deep  planting  must  be  avoided.  In  testing  grass 
seeds,  except  timothy,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  heavier 
chaff,  which  looks  like  good  seed,  but  does  not  contain  a 
grain,  is  not  counted  with  the  good  seed.  Every  seed 
should  be  gently  pressed  with  the  finger-nail  or  with  a 
small  penknife  to  determine  whether  or  not  it  contains  a 
grain.  The  chaff  should  count  as  impurity,  but  should  not 
be  tested  for  germination.  Some  hard-coated  seeds  may 
be  soaked  a  few  hours  in  warm  water,  but  as  a  usual  thing 
it  is  better  not  to  do  so. 

Seeds  of  clovers  and  most  vegetables  can  be  easily  ger- 
minated between  two  folds  of  damp  flannel  cloth  placed  be- 
tween two  plates.  Such  tests  permit  frequent  inspection 
of  the  seed,  which  should  be  thrown  away  as  fast  as  it 
germinates,  count  being  kept  of  the  same.  Damp  blotters, 
porous  dishes,  and  various  kinds  of  especially  prepared 
germinating  apparatus  are  sometimes  used  in  seed-testing. 
The  amount  of  moisture  to  be  given  varies  greatly  with 
the  variety  of  seed  and  can  be  best  learned  by  experience. 
In  general,  quick-sprouting  seeds,  like  clover,  cabbage, 
radish,  etc.,  will  stand  more  moisture  than  those  varieties 
which  sprout  more  slowly. 

To  make  sure  of  the  vitality  of  seed  it  is  better  to  test  it 
in  the  soil,  as  previously  suggested,  and  also  by  the  cloth 
or  plate  method.  Soil  tests  should  be  continued  a  few  days 
longer  than  those  made  between  cloth  or  blotters.  There 
is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  standards  of 
germination  to  which  first-class  seed  should  attain.  Those 
in  use  at  present  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
are  given  in  the  first  table  on  page  89.  While  first-class 
seeds  should  reach  the  standards  referred  to,  it  may  be  said 
that  seed  which  falls  as  much  as  ten  per  cent  below  them 
need  not  be  rejected  as  bad. 


SEEDS. 


^9 


TABLE    OF    GERMINATION    STANDARDS. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Seed. 

Seed. 

90 
80 
94 
92 

SO 
75 

11 

80 
50 
90 
90 

s 

90 
90 
90 
90 
90 

95 
90 

Seed. 

Asparagus      

Beans,  bush     

85 
95 
95 
150 

95 
85 
95 
95 
95 
85 
85 
65 
65 
85 

To 
90 

1^ 

95 
90 
90 
90 
90 

Cucumber 

Egg-plant    

Endive  

Okra       .         ... 

90 
85 
75 

li 
85 
90 
95 

ti 

95 
83 
90 
89 
90 
90 

Onion 

Beet     

Gherkin 

Grasses: 

Canada  blue 

Fowl  meadow.  . . 

Johnson 

Hungarian  brome 

Kentucky  blue.  . 

Meadow  fescue.. 

Orchard   

Texas  blue 

Timothy   

Kafir  corn .... 

Parsnip 

Peas 

Horecole 

Pepper  

Pumpkin 

Radish... 

Rape   

Rhubarb 

Rutabaga 

Salsify 

Sorghum 

Brussels  sprouts. . 

Buckwheat 

Cabbage  

Carrot         

Cauliflower 

Celeriac  

Celery  

Clover  alfalfa      . 

Sourrv     

"        alsike 

Kohl-rabi            .... 

Squash 

"        red 

Leek 

"        scarlet 

Lettuce....       

Tobacco 

"        white 

CoUards     

Lupin,  yellow 

Melon     

Millet,  common  — 

pearl 

Mustard 

Oats 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Vetch,  hairy 

Wheat 

90 
95 
90 
95 

^otton 

Cowpea              • 

NUMBER,  WEIGHT,  COST  OF  GRASS  SEEDS,  AND 
AMOUNT  TO  SOW  PER  ACRE. 

(Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

[Columns  i,  2,  3,  and  4  are  compiled  from  "  The  Best  Forage  Plants,"  by 
Stebler  and  Schroeter.  The  figures  in  column  5  are  obtained  by  multi- 
plying the  amount  of  standard  quality  of  seed  required  (col.  2)  by  the  retail 
price  quoted  in  N.  Y.  catalogues.  The  weight  of  10,000,000  grains  (col.  6) 
is  obtained  by  dividing  this  quantity  by  the  number  of  seeds  in  one  pound 
(col.  I).] 


Name. 


Redtop  (Agrostis  alba)  . . . 
Reed    canary    grass   (Pha- 

laVis  arundinacea) 

Smooth -stalked     meadow 

grass  (Poa  pratensis)  . . . 
Rough -stalked       meadow 

grass  (Poa  trivialis) 


(i) 


o  «co 


3 
a, 

|o"o 


S' 


603,000 

660,000 

2,400,000 

3,000,000 


(2) 

&       X) 

°  C  J3 

3   u     ,0) 
2   ^   «' 

<     " 


9-7 
21.0 

17-5 


(3) 


I^  U  3  bll 

0  j:  o  2 

<      XI  c 


7.00 
12.00 

8.40 

8.75 


(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

T3 

.81 
0  5  . 

Ill 

8-32 

$1.45 

16.58 

44-48 

7.35 

15. »5 

12-20 

2.10 

4.17 

II-I7 

4.88 

3-33 

so 


AGRICULTURE. 


NU3IBER,  AVEIGHT,  COST  OF  GRASS  SEEDS,  AND 
A3IOUXT  TO  SOW  PER  ACH^— Continued. 


(i) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

xJ-d 

Amount  to  Sow 
per  Acre  in 
lbs  ,  Standard 
Quality. 

Uli. 

6 

Name. 

—   4J 

Amount  to  S 

per  Acre  in  1 

of  Pure  Ge 

minatingSe( 

y 

c  c    ^ 
^  c  c 

5 

Sheep's     fescue     (Festuca 

ovina) 

680,000 

28  0 

12.60 

10-15 

$4.20 

14-85 

6 

Various-leaved  fescue  (Fes- 

tuca heterophylla)  

400,000 

33-5 

19-50 

8.38 

25.00 

7 

Creeping   fescue   (Festuca 

rubra)   

600,000 

42. 5 

13.00 

10-15 

8.50 

16.67 

8 

Awnless  brome  grass  (Bro- 

mus  inermis) 

137,000 

44  0 

35 -60 

10-14 

8.80 

72.99 

9 

Perennial  rye  grass (Lolium 

perenne)  

336,800 

5S-0 

38.50 

18-30 

4-95 

29.70 

lO 

Italian   rye   grass  (Lolium 

italicum) 

285,000 

48.5 

32.40 

12-24 

3-56 

35-10 

11 

Orchard     grass     (Dactylis 

glomerata) 

579,500 

35-0 

12-16 

5.60 

17.25 

12 

Meadow    fescue    (Festuca 

pratensis) 

318,200 

52.0 

12-26 

7.80 

31.42 

13 

Meadow  oat  grass  (Arrhe- 

natherura  avenaceum). . . 

159,000 

70.0 

34-30 

10 

12.60 

62.89 

14 

Yellow  oat  grass  (Trisetum 

flavescens) 

2,045,000 

29.0 

4.64 

5-5 

24.65 

4.89 

15 

Velvet  grass  (Holcus  lana- 

tus) 

1,304,000 

22.0 

8.80 

6-5 

4.40 

7.66 

16 

Timothy  (Phleum  pratense) 

1,170,500 

16.0 

14.00 

48 

1.50 

8.54 

17 

Meadow   foxtail   (Alopecu- 

rus  pratensis) 

907,000 

23.0 

6.21 

6 

6.21 

11.02 

18 

Vernal    grass    (Anthoxan- 

thum  odoratum) 

924,000 

30.0 

7.80 

15.00 

10.82 

19 

Crested  dog's  tail  (Cynosu- 

rus  cristatus) 

1,127,000 

25.0 

13-50 

20-32 

7-50 

8.87 

20 

Alsike     clover    (Trifolium 

hybridum) 

707,000 

12.3 

9.00 

94-100 

1. 60 

14.14 

21 

Sainfoin    (Onobrychis     sa- 

tiva) 

22,500 

78.0* 

60.84* 

40 

6.25 

444-44 

22 

Red  clover  (Trifolium  pra- 

tense)  

279,000 

18.0 

15.84 

64 

2.50 

35.84 

23 

White     clover     (Trifolium 

repens) .... 

740,000 

10.5 

7-50 

63 

2.94 

13-51 

24 

Common  kidney  vetch  (An- 

thyllus  vulneraria)   

154,000 

17-5 

15.00    60-64 

4-58 

67.15 

25 

Alfalfa,   or    lucern    (Medi- 

cago  sativa)  

209,500 
328,000 

25.0 
18.0 

22.00 

61-63 
64-66 

3-25 
2.16 

48.56 
30.48 

26 

TrefoiKMedicago  lupulina) 

14-75 

27 

Bird's-foot    trefoil    (Lotus 

corniculatus)  

375,000 

11 .0 

4.67 

60 

4.40 

26.66 

28 

Officinal  goat's  rue  (Galega 

officinalis) 

62,000 

22.0 

6.90 

4.14 

161.29 

*  Unshelled. 


SEEDS.  91 

NOTES    ON    ADAPTABILITY  AND    USES    OF    PRE- 
CEDING  GRASSES   AND   CLOVERS. 

No.  I.  Requires  moist  climate  or  damp  soil.  Best  propa- 
gated by  transplanting  small  turf  cuttings  in  autumn. 
Valuable  for  late  pasturage  or  lawns  in  the  New  England 
and  Middle  States.     Use  5-10  per  cent  in  mixtures. 

No.  2.  Adapted  to  stif¥,  wet  lands  and  flooded  fields. 
Requires  moisture.  Valuable  hay  when  cut  young,  and 
well  suited  for  binding  loose  banks  near  running  water  or 
for  forming  a  firm  sod  on  marshy  ground. 

No.  3.  Grows  best  on  strongly  calcareous  soils.  Well 
adapted  for  pasture,  and  makes  a  good  bottom  grass  for 
meadows.     An  excellent  lawn  grass. 

No.  4.  Should  be  sown  only  on  moist,  fertile,  and  shel- 
tered soils  in  mixtures. 

No.  5.  Light,  dry  soils,  especially  those  which  are  poor, 
shallow,  and  silicious.  Valuable  bottom  grass  and  for  sheep 
pastures.     Sown  only  in  mixtures. 

No.  6.  Best  on  moist,  low  lands  containing  humus  and 
sandy  loams.  Withstands  drought;  useful  in  pasture;  un- 
important for  hay.     Alone  it  makes  no  continuous  turf. 

No.  7.  Valuable  pasture  or  bottom  grass.  Withstands 
drought;  endures  both  cold  and  shade.  On  poor  land,  es- 
pecially moist  sands  and  railway  banks,  serves  to  bind  the 
soil.     Product  small. 

No.  8.  Valuable  for  light  soils,  especially  in  regions  sub- 
ject to  extremes  of  heat  or  long  periods  of  drought.  Used 
alone  or  in  mixtures  for  permanent  meadows  and  pastures. 

No.  9.  Excellent  and  lasting  pasture  grass  for  heavy  soils 
in  moist,  cool  climates.  On  light,  dry  soils  disappears  after 
the  second  year.     Rarely  sown  alone. 

No.  10.  Excellent  for  rich  and  rather  moist  lands.  Re- 
garded in  Europe  as  one  of  the  best  for  hay.  Lasts  only 
two  or  three  years. 

No.  II.  Grows  well  on  any  soil,  excepting  that  which  is 
very  wet;  withstands  shade.  Affords  a  large  amount  of 
aftermath.     Valuable  alike  for  hay  and  pasturage. 

No.  12.  Thrives  in  either  dry  or  wet  soils.  Valuable  hay 
or  pasture  grass. 


92  AGRICULTURE. 

No.  13.  Thrives  on  moist,  loamy  sands  or  light  clays 
which  are  not  too  moist,  and  marls.  Spring  most  favorable 
seed-time.  Valuable  in  the  South  for  hay  and  winter 
pasture. 

No.  14.  Valuable  for  temporary  or  permanent  pastures. 
Thrives  on  marly  or  calcareous  soil,  in  all  light  land  rich  in 
humus. 

No.  15.  Sometimes  sown  on  light,  thin  soils  unsuited 
for  more  valuable  sorts.  Rarely  used  excepting  in  mix- 
tures. 

No,  16.  Best  known  and  most  extensively  cultivated  for 
hay.  Sown  alone  or  mixed  with  redtop  or  clover.  Suc- 
ceeds best  on  moist  loams  or  clays.  On  dry  ground  the 
yield  is  light. 

No.  17.  Endures  cold.  Likes  strong  soil,  stiff  loam,  or 
clay.  One  of  the  best  grasses  for  land  under  irrigation. 
Very  early.  Two  to  four  pounds  in  mixtures  for  permanent 
pastures. 

No.  18.  Grows  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil;  sown  only  in 
mixtures,  i  to  2  pounds,  with  permanent  pasture  or  meadow 
grasses. 

No.  19.  Especially  adapted  for  loams,  light  clays,  marls, 
and  moist,  loamy  sands.  Moist  climates  are  most  suitable. 
Withstands  drought  and  thrives  well  in  shade.  Nutritive 
value  high.  Used  in  mixtures  to  form  bottom  grass  either 
in  pasture  or  hay. 

No.  20.  Grows  on  strongest  clay  or  peaty  soil;  peculiarly 
adapted  to  damp  ground.  Bears  heavy  frosts  without 
injury.     Sown  in  August  or  February. 

No.  21.  Requires  good  and  open  subsoil,  free  from  water. 
Sown  alone,  from  end  of  March  to  beginning  of  May. 

No.  22.  Succeeds  best  in  rich,  loamy  soil,  on  good  clays, 
and  on  soils  of  an  alluvial  nature.  A  standard  fodder 
plant. 

No.  23.  Thrives  on  mellow  land  containing  lime,  and  on 
all  soils  rich  in  humus.  Resists  drought.  Generally  used 
in  mixtures  for  pastures  or  lawns. 

No.  24.  Cultivated  for  grazing;  on  warm  soils,  if  manure^^ 


SEEDS. 


93 


and  of  proper  depth.  Hardy;  resists  drought.  Sheep, 
goats,  and  horned  cattle  eat  it  greedily. 

No.  25.  Grows  well  on  any  calcareous  soil  having  a  per- 
meable subsoil.  Especially  adapted  to  the  warm  and  dry 
regions  of  the  West  and  Southwest.     Requires  irrigation. 

No.  26.  Any  soil  containing  sufficient  moisture  and  lime 
is  suitable.  Most  successful  on  clay  marls.  Cultivated 
only  where  the  better  kinds  of  clover  cannot  be  grown. 

No.  27.  Thrives  on  dry  or  moist,  sandy  or  clayey  soils. 
Well  suited  to  dry  lands  at  high  elevations,  though  poor. 

No.  28.  Excellent  fodder  plant  for  warm,  sheltered  situ- 
ations. Thrives  only  in  deep  soil,  and  when  subsoil  is  not 
wet. 


VITALITY    OF    SEEDS   IF   PROPERLY   KEPT. 

(McKerrow.) 

5  years       Wheat 2  years 

5      "  Buckwheat 2  " 

Corn 2  " 

Timothy 2  " 

Rye 2  " 

Flax 2  " 

Millet 2  '• 

Orchard-grass 2  " 


Turnips 

Rape 

Pumpkin 5 

Peas 3 

Beans 3 

Clover 3 

Oats 3 

Barley 3 


94 


AGRICULTURE. 


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WEEDS. 


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AGRICULTURE. 


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WEEDS. 


97 


98 


AGRICULTURE. 


'c  3 

Sowing  clean 
seed:  cuitiv. 

Grubbing  in  fall; 
cultivation. 

Subsoiling  in  dry 
weather;  per- 
sistent cuitiv. 
during  three 
successive  sea- 

sons. 
Sowing         clean 

seeds:  burning; 

pasturing. 
Alternate  cuitiv. 

and           heavy 

cropping. 
Cuitiv..  with 

hoed  crops. 
Prev.  of  seeding; 

cultivation. 

6 
Q 

a 

Cuitiv.  ;increased 
fertilization; 
re-seeding 
meadows. 

Place  of 
Growth  and 
Products  In- 
jured. 

Grain  and  corn 
fields. 

Meadows; 
pastuies. 

Open      prairie; 
burs  very  in- 
jurious in 
wool. 

Oatfields 

Everywhere; 
dairy       prod- 
ucts; grain. 

Grain  fields  and 
vineyards. 

Meadows;   pas- 
tures. 

6 
•a 

Waste        land ; 

pastures.* 
Clay    soil;    dry 

meadows  and 

pastures. 

1) 

3 
In 

a 

Methods  of 
Propagation 
and  Distribu- 
tion of  Seed. 

Seeds,  in  grain 
seed. 

Seeds;  animals; 
wind. 

Running  root- 
stocks;  seeds; 
burs  carried 
by  animals. 

Seeds,   in    seed 
oats. 

Bulblets;  seeds. 

Seeds;     carried 

by  animals. 
Seeds 

d 

d 
•a 

Is 

o 

s 
g 

X! 

Time  of 
Seeding. 

July  to  Oct.. 
July  to  Nov.. 
Aug.  to  Nov.. 

July  to  Sept.. 

Aug.  to  Sept. 

Aug.  to  Nov. 
July  to  Sept.. 

1 

o 

ti 

3 
< 

> 

o 

o 
bJD 

3 
< 

i 

o 

"3 

a 

a 

'3 

Where  Injuri- 
ous. 

Mich,  to  N.  D.. 

Me.  to  Va.  and 

Ind. 
Minn,  to  Cal... 

Minn,  to  Cal... 

Penn.  to  S.  C. 

N.J.  to  Tex.... 
Me.  to  Ohio.... 

1 

O 

6 

o 

X* 

o 
O 

(J 

3 
1 

a 

Technical  Name. 

Polygonum      convol- 
vulus.i 
Daucus  carota" 

Glycyrrhiza  lepidotaS 

C 

> 

< 

Allium  vineale^ 

Eleusine  indicai 

Rudbeckia  hirta^  .... 

3 

3 

1 

X 

<u 
B 

3 

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s 

3 

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um.' 
Melilotus  officinalis.! 

B 
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2 

3 

o 
a 
>^ 

1 

i 

re 
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c 
o 
£ 
S 
o 
U 

Wild  buckwheat,  black 

bindweed. 
Wild  carrot,  bird's  nest, 

devil's  plague. 
Wild  licorice 

u 
o 

Wild  onion,  field  garlic, 
wild  garlic. 

Yard  grass,  wire  grass, 
crab  grass. 

Yellow    daisy,    brown- 
eyed    Susan,    nigger- 
head. 

Yellow     dock,     broad- 
leafed  dork 

"3 

c 
c 

tc 

& 

o 
13 

1 

4J    O 

II 

ENEMIES   OF    FAllM    CHOPS.  99 


VIII.    ENEMIES    OF    FARM    CROPS. 

TREATMENTS   FOU   IXJURIOUS   INSECTS   AND 
FUNGOUS   DISEASES   OF   PLANTS. 

By  Prof.  E.  S.  Goff,  of  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 
The  value  of  the  following  treatments  for  preventrhg  injury 
to  crops  from  insects  and  fungous  diseases  has  been  proved  by 
abundant  experience.  It  is  essential  that  the  treatments  be 
given  promptly  and  thoroughly.  In  the  case  of  fungous  dis- 
eases, it  is  generally  essential  that  the  applications  be  made 
before  the  disease  appears,  since  they  are  preventive,  rather  than 
curative.  The  treattnents  considered  most  important  are  printed 
in  italics.  As  a  rule,  those  not  so  printed  need  be  given  only 
in  seasons  or  localities  in  which  the  attack  is  serious.* 

Formulas. 

No.  I.  Bordeaux  Mixture. — Places  pounds  of  copper  sulfate 
in  .'I  cloth  sack  and  suspend  this  over  night  in  a  wood  vessel 
containing  4gallons  of  water,  immersing  the  sack.  In  another 
wood  vessel  slake  4  pounds  of  fresh  lime  in  as  many  gallons  of 
water.  When  the  lime  is  cool,  pour  it  and  the  copper  sulfate 
solution  into  a  barrel  and  add  enough  water  to  make  45  gallons. 
Apply  at  once  with  a  force-pump,  with  spraying  nozzle,  stir- 
ring frequently  during  the  application. 

No.  2.  Ammoniacal  Copper  Carbonate. — Dissolve  i  ounce  of 
copper  carbonate  in  3  pints  of  strong  ammonia  and  add  this 
solution  to  25  gallons  of  water.  Apply  as  in  No.  i.  No  stir- 
ring is  required. 

No.  3.  Copper  Sulfate  Solution. — Dissolve,  as  directed  in  No. 
T,  I  pound  of  copper  sulfate  in  15  gallons  of  water.  Apply 
as  in  No  2. 

No.  4.  Stir  4  ounces  oi  Paris  green  in  40  gallons  of  water, 
and  add  \  pound  of  fresh  lime,  slaked  in  2  quarts  of  hot 
water.     Apply  as  in  No.  i. 

No.  5.  Bordeaux  Mixture  {^o.  \),  with  Paris  green  added  at 
the  rate  of  i  ounce  to  10  gallons.     Apply  as  in  No.  i. 

*  The  following  scheme  for  treating,  crops  is  after  a  plan  published  by 
the  late  Mr.  E.  G.  Lodemann  of  Cornell  University,  in  Trans.  N.  V.  Siaic 
Agricultural  Society  for  1893,  pp.  176-179, 


100 


AGRICULTURE. 


No.  6.  London  purple,  4  ounces,  very  thoroughly  mixed  with 
25  pounds  of  land  plaster.     Apply  with  a  sprinkling-box. 

No.  7.  Mix  I  ounce  of  fresh  powdered  white  hellebore  in  3 
gallons  of  water.  Apply  at  once  with  force-pump  or  sprinkling 
pot. 

No.  8.  Kerosene  Emulsion. — Dissolve  \  pound  hard,  or  i 
quart  of  soft  soap  in  2  quarts  of  boiling  water;  place  i  pint 
of  kerosene  in  a  tin  can;  pour  the  boiling-hot  solution  into 
this,  cork,  and  shake  rapidly  for  i  minute.  Before  using, 
dilute  with  its  own  bulk  of  warm  soft-water.  Apply  as  in 
No.  2, 

No.  9.  Mix  I  pound  of  fresh  Pyrethrutn  powder  with  an 
equal  bulk  of  air-slaked  lime  in  a  bottle  or  tin  can;  cork 
tightly  and  leave  24  hours  before  use.  Apply  in  still  air, 
with  sprinkling-box  or  powder-bellows. 

No.  10.   Air-slaked  lime  2,-^-^X\qA  with  a  sprinkling-box. 

No.  II.  Cut  small  cards  from  thin  tarred  paper,  slit  one  side 
to  the  centre,  and  make  a  short  cross-cut  near  the  end  of  the 
slit,  as  in  drawing. 


No.  12.  Corrosive  Stiblit?iate  Solution. — Dissolve  2\  ounces 
of  corrosive  sublimate  in  2  gallons  of  hot  water,  and  pour 
this  solution  into  15  gallons  of  cold  water.  Use  wood, 
earthen,  or  glass  vessels. 

No.  13.  Potassium  Sul/id  Solution. — Dissolve  ^  ounce  of 
potassium  sulfid  (liver  of  sulfur,  sulfuret  of  potassium) 
in  I  quart  of  warm  (not  hot)  water,  and  add  this  solution  to 
3  quarts  of  cold  water.     Apply  as  in  No.  2. 


EN-EMIES   OF   FARM   CROPS. 


101 


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102 


AGRICULTURE. 


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104 


AGRICULTURE. 


A  CHEAP  ORCHARD-SPRAYING  OUTFIT. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

Spraying  to  control  various  insect  pests,  particularly  those 
of  the  orchard  and  garden,  has  reached  so  satisfactory  and 
inexpensive  a  basis  that  it  is  recognized  by  every  progres- 
sive farmer  as  a  nec- 
essary feature  of  the 
year's  operations,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  apple, 
pear,  and  plum  crops 
the  omission  of  such 
treatment  means  seri- 
ous loss.  The  conse- 
quent demand  for 
spraying  apparatus  has 
been  met  by  all  the 
leading  pump  manufac- 
turers of  this  country, 
and  ready-fitted  appa- 
ratus, consisting  of 
pump,  spray  tank  or 
barrel,  and  nozzle  with 
hose,  are  on  the  market 
in  numerous  styles  and 
at  prices  ranging   from 


Orchard-spraying  Apparatus. 


$20  upward.  The  cost  of  a  spraying  outfit  for  orchard 
work  miay,  however,  be  considerably  reduced  by  purchasing 
merely  the  pump  and  fixtures,  and  mounting  them  at  home 
on  a  strong  barrel.  An  apparatus  of  this  sort,  representing 
a  style  that  has  proven  very  satisfactory  in  practical  ex- 
perience, is  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  figure.  It  is 
merely  a  strong  pump  with  an  air-chamber  to  give  a  steady 
stream,  provided  with  two  discharge  hose-pipes.  One  of 
these  enters  the  barrel  and  keeps  the  water  agitated  and 
the  poison  thoroughly  intermixed,  and  the  other  and  longer 
one  is  the  spraying  hose  and  terminates  in  the  nozzle.  The 
spraying-hose  should  be  about  20  feet  long,  and  may  be 
fastened  to  a  light  pole,  preferably  of  bamboo,  to  assist  in 


EN"EMIKS   OF   FARM   CROPS.  105 

directing  the  spray.  The  nozzle  should  be  capabi::  of 
breaking  the  water  up  into  a  fine  mist  spray,  so  as  to  wet 
the  plant  completely  with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of 
liquid.  The  two  more  satisfactory  nozzles  are  those  of  the 
Nivcr  and  the  Vermorel  type.  A  suitable  pump  with  nozzle 
and  hose  may  be  obtained  of  any  pump  manufacturer  or 
hardware  dealer  at  a  cost  of  from  $13  to  $15.  If  one  with 
brass  fittings  be  secured  it  will  also  serve  for  the  application 
of  fungicides.  The  outfit  outlined  above  may  be  mounted 
on  a  cart  or  wagon,  the  additional  elevation  secured  in  this 
way  facilitating  the  spraying  of  trees,  or  for  more  extended 
operations,  the  pump  may  be  mounted  on  a  large  water 
tank. 

PREVENTION  OF  OATS-SMUT.  (Goff.) 

The  smut  of  oats,  which  causes  an  annual  loss  to  the 
farmers  of  the  United  States  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to 
millions  of  dollars,  may  be  entirely  prevented  by  treating 
the  seed  oats  before  sowing,  at  a  cost  for  labor  and  materials 
which  need  not  exceed  five  cents  per  acre  of  oats  sown. 

Two  methods  of  treatment  have  been  found  satisfactory. 
These  we  will  call  for  convenience  the  Formalin  Treatment 
and  the  Hot-water  Treattnent.  The  first  has  the  advantage 
of  being  the  simpler,  but  it  requires  a  small  cash  outlay  for 
materials.  The  second  requires  no  materials  or  apparatus 
except  what  the  farmer  already  has,  unless  it  be  a  good 
thermometer. 

The  Formalin  Treatment. — Soak  the  seed  oats  one  hour 
in  a  solution  of  formalin,  made  by  adding  one  ounce  of 
formalin  to  every  3I  gallons  of  water.  Place  the  water  in 
a  barrel,  or  other  convenient  vessel,  add  the  formalin  to  it, 
and  pour  in  one  and  one-half  bushels  of  seed  oats  for  each 
3^  gallons  of  the  solution.  At  the  end  of  one  hour,  draw 
off  or  pour  off  the  part  of  the  solution  that  is  not  absorbed 
by  the  oats,  and  spread  the  oats  on  a  clean  floor  to  dry. 
They  should  be  shoveled  over  once  or  twice  a  day  until  dry 
enough  to  sow. 


106  AGRlCULTURIi. 

Formalin  is  a  liquid  that  may  be  purchased  at  drugstores. 
Ask  iox  forty-per-cent  formalin.  It  costs  from  50  to  60  cents 
per  pint,  and  a  pint  contains  enough  for  about  30  bushels  of 
seed  oats.  It  is  sold  in  smaller  quntities  at  10  cent  per 
ounce.  If  formalin  is  purchased  in  considerable  quantities, 
it  will  be  well  to  have  the  druggist  weigh  out  one  ounce  in 
a  small  bottle,  and  then  mark  on  the  bottle  the  height  to 
which  the  ounce  reaches.  This  bottle  may  then  be  used  as 
a  measure  in  adding  the  foririalin  to  the  water. 

The  Hot-water  Treatment  consists  in  soaking  the  seed 
10  minutes  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  133"  F.  Heat  the 
water  in  a  large  kettle,  and  close  by  sink  a  barrel  in  the 
ground  to  within  a  foot  of  the  top.  Pour  a  part  of  the  hot 
water  into  the  barrel,  and  take  the  temperature  with  a  good 
thermometer.  Then  add  either  cold  or  hot  water,  stirring 
it  in  the  mean  time,  until  it  shows  a  temperature  of  138°. 
Put  about  a  bushel  of  oats  in  a  coarse  gunnysack,  tie  this 
to  one  end  of  a  pole  and  rest  the  pole  over  a  post,  thus  mak- 
ing a  lever,  by  which  the  sack  of  oats  may  be  easily  raised 
or  lowered.  Now  dip  the  sack  of  oats  into  the  water  in  the 
barrel.  The  water  will  be  immediately  cooled,  and  hot 
water  must  be  added  to  keep  the  temperature  about  133°. 
Let  one  person  attend  to  the  temperature,  and  another  to 
handling  the  oats.  Keep  the  oats  moving  in  the  barrel. 
Take  them  out  at  the  end  of  10  minutes,  dip  the  sack  at 
once  in  cold  water,  then  spread  on  a  clean  floor  to  dry. 
Shovel  them  over  three  times  a  day  for  a  few  days,  when 
they  may  be  sown  with  a  force  drill  ;  or  in  two  or  three 
hours  they  may  be  sown  broadcast.  As  the  oats  absorb 
considerable  water,  it  is  necessary  to  sow  about  half  a 
bushel  more  per  acre  than  when  untreated  seed  is  used. 
This  is  on  the  basis  of  two  and  one-half  bushels  per  acre. 
Two  men  in  one  day  can  treat  enough  seed  to  sow  twe-nty 
acres. 

This  treatment  may  also  be  applied  with  satisfactory 
results  for  the  prevention  of  smut  of  other  cereals  than 
oats,  and  for  prevention  of  potato-scab,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  article. 


EITEMIES   OF    FARM    CROPS.  107 


THE  FORMALIN  TriEAT3IEXT  FOR  THE  PRE- 
VENTIOX  OF  THE  SMUTS  OF  CEREAL  GRAINS 
AND    OF   POTATO-SCAB.     (Bolley.) 

For  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley,  and  Millet. — Use  formalin  (40  per 
cent  solution  of  formaldehyle)  at  the  rate  of  i  pound  of 
the  liquid  to  45  or  50  gallons  of  water.  Use  any  method 
of  wetting  the  grain  most  suited  to  your  means.  Sprink- 
ling and  shoveling  is  as  effective  as  dipping,  if  carefully 
done. 

It  is  well  to  treat  one  day  and  allow  the  grain  to  remain 
piled  up  overnight,  thus  allowing  the  fumes  of  the  solution 
to  act  throughout  the  pile. 

Cautions. — (i)  In  the  case  of  oats  or  barley  the  wetting 
must  be  more  thorough  than  in  the  case  of  wheat,  so  that 
the  formalin  or  gas  may  penetrate  beneath  the  husks  of 
the  grain. 

(2)  Do  not  allow  wet  grain  to  remain  in  a  pile  long 
enough  to  get  hot.  A  very  slight  degree  of  fermentation 
may  greatly  reduce  the  yield. 

For  Potato-scab. — Soak  the  tubers  before  cutting  one  hour 
and  a  half  in  a  solution  of  formalin  at  the  rate  of  one 
pound  of  the  liquid  to  thirty  gallons  of  water  ;  or  in  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  using  one  pound  of  the 
chemical  to  each  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

Note  :  The  potato-scab  fungus  lives  from  year  to  year  in 
the  soil  and  upon  old  vines.  Hence  it  is  wise  to  try  to 
keep  it  off  your  lands,  by  treating  all  seed-tubers.  (See 
Bull.  37,  N.  D.  Experiment  Station.) 


108  AGRICULTURE. 

FIGHTING     THE     CHINCH-BUG      BY     MEANS      OF 
KEROSENE    EMULSION.      (Goff.) 

Experiments  have  established  the  fact  that  with  thorough 
work  according  to  the  directions  given  below  the  kerosene 
emulsion  will  prevent  the  invasion  of  cornfields  by  chinch- 
bugs,  even  though  the  bugs  appear  in  great  numbers. 

How  to  Make  and  Apply  the  Ke7'osene  Emulsion. — Slice  half 
a  pound  of  common  bar  soap,  put  it  in  a  kettle  with  one  gal- 
lon of  soft  water,  and  boil  until  dissolved  ;  put  two  gallons 
of  kerosene  in  a  churn  or  stone  jar,  and  to  it  add  the  boiling- 
hot  soap  solution  ;  churn  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes, 
when  the  whole  will  appear  creamy.  If  properly  made,  no 
oil  will  separate  out  when  a  few  drops  of  the  emulsion  are 
placed  on  a  piece  of  glass.  To  each  gallon  of  the  emulsion 
add  eight  gallons  of  water  and  stir.  Apply  with  a  sprink- 
ling-pot. 

Every  farmer  should  learn  to  make  this  emulsion,  as  it  is 
a  most  useful  insecticide.  It  is  especially  valuable  for  kill- 
ing lice  on  cattle  and  hogs.  Paris  green  will  not  kill  chinch- 
bugs. 

The  bugs  will  be  very  likely  to  enter  cornfields  border- 
ing grainfields,  after  the  grain  is  cut.  Before  they  have 
had  time  to  do  this  plough  a  deep  furrow  along  the  side  of 
the  field  they  will  enter,  and  throw  into  it  stalks  of  green 
corn.  When  the  bugs  have  accumulated  on  the  corn, 
sprinkle  with  the  emulsion.  Put  in  fresh  stalks  and  sprinkle 
whenever  the  bugs  accumulate.  If  they  break  over  the 
barrier,  as  they  probably  will,  run  a  few  furrows  a  few 
rows  back  in  the  field,  and  repeat.  When  they  have  at- 
tacked stalks  of  standing  corn,  destroy  by  sprinkling. 

If  the  remedy  is  tried,  it  should  be  used  persistently.  To 
kill  one  lot  of  bugs  and  then  stop  will  do  little  or  no  good. 
When  the  bugs  threaten  to  destroy  as  much  as  five  or  ten 
acres,  it  will  pay  for  one  or  two  men  to  devote  their  whole 
time  to  the  warfare.  Only  a  part  of  each  day,  however, 
will  be  needed.  Some  corn  will  be  lost  at  best  but  the  most 
of  the  field  should  be  saved. 


FORESTRY.  109 


IX.  FORESTRY. 

FORESTRY  FOR   FARMERS. 

By  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  Director  of  the  New  York  State  College  of 
Forestry. 

There  has  been  much  talk  about  forestry  in  the  U.  S.,  but 
there  has  been  little  application  of  the  teachings  of  that 
science.  This  is  easily  explained  in  so  far  as  the  lumber- 
men are  concerned,  who  are  in  the  business  of  making 
money  by  cutting  the  virgin  woods,  similar  to  the  mining 
of  ore,  but  it  is  less  intelligible  with  the  farmer  who  is  pre- 
sumed to  be  in  the  business  of  making  money  by  the  pro- 
duction and  harvesting  of  crops,  which  he  grows  on  the 
soil  of  his  farm. 

That  his  wood-lot  could  and  should  by  him  be  also  treated 
as  a  crop  seems  rarely  to  have  entered  his  mind.  Whether 
he  starts  out,  as  in  the  prairie  portions  of  the  State,  by 
planting  a  grove,  or  whether  he  cuts  his  wood  from  the 
virgin  growth  which  he  left  after  clearing  enough  for  field 
and  meadow,  in  either  case  he  should  fully  realize  that  he 
is  dealing  with  a  valuable  crop,  which  requires  and  will 
pay  for  the  attention  and  application  of  knowledge  in  its 
management,  such  as  a  true  husbandman  would  give  to  it. 

The  Wisconsin  farmer,  just  as  his  neighbor  in  Minnesota, 
living  in  a  State  largely  covered  with  timber  of  great  value, 
has  special  reason  to  practise  the  principles  of  forestry  in 
order  to  get  the  most  out  of  this  part  of  the  property  both 
for  the  present  and  the  future.  And  those  who  are  located 
in  the  prairie  portions  have  no  less  need  of  maintaining  a 
forest  growth  on  some  part  of  their  farm  as  a  matter  of 
proper  management  of  their  resources. 

The  first  thing,  as  with  every  other  crop,  that  will  have  to 
be  decided  is  on  what  portions  of  the  farm  this  wood-crop 
is  best  propagated.  In  deciding  about  the  location  of  the 
wood-lot  the  farmer  must  keep  in  mind  : 

I.  That  wood  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil,  which  is  unfit 
for  agricultural   use  ;  that,  although   it  grows  best   on  the 


110  AGRICULTURE. 

best  sites,  it  is  to  be  mainly  considered  and  used  as  a  "  stop- 
gap" to  make  useful  those  parts  which  would  otherwise  be 
waste. 

2,  That  a  forest  growth,  besides  furnishing  useful  material, 
is  a  condition  of  soil-cover  which  affects  other  conditions, 
namely,  of  climate  and  water-flow,  and  hence  its  location 
should  be  such  as  to  secure  the  most  favorable  influence  on 
these. 

3.  That  the  wood-crop  does  not  live  on  the  soil,  but  on  the 
air,  enriching  the  soil  in  nutritive  elements  by  its  decaying 
foliage  rather  than  exhausting  it,  and  hence  that  no  ma- 
nuring and  no  rotation  of  crops  is  necessary  as  in  field 
crops;  in  other  words,  the  location  of  the  wood-crop  can  be 
made  permanent. 

A  wood  growth  should  therefore  be  maintained  on  the 
farm  : 

a.  Wherever  the  ground  is  too  wet  or  too  dry,  too  thin 
or  too  rocky  or  too  steep,  for  comfortable  ploughing  and  for 
farm  crops  to  do  well,  or  for  pasturage  to  last  long,  or,  in 
general,  where  the  ground  is  unfit  for  field  and  meadow. 

b.  On  the  highest  portions  of  the  farm,  the  tops  of  hills 
and  also  in  belts  along  the  hillsides,  so  as  to  interrupt  con- 
tinuous slopes,  which  might  give  rise  to  such  a  rush  of 
surface-waters  as  to  gully  the  ground  and  make  it  unfit  for 
field  crops  or  pasture  ;  the  gentler  slopes  which  are  liable 
to  washing  should  at  least  be  kept  in  grass  or  terraced  for 
crops  to  prevent  the  rush  of  surface-waters. 

c.  Along  watercourses,  where  narrower  or  wider  belts  of 
timber  should  be  maintained  to  prevent  undermining  of 
banks  and  washing  of  soil  into  the  streams  if  ploughed  too 
close  to  the  border  ;  the  shade  of  a  forest  growth  would 
also  check  rapid  evaporation  of  smaller  watercourses. 

d.  Wherever  the  protection  by  a  wind-break  against  cold 
or  hot  winds  is  desirable,  for  which  purpose  the  timber  belt 
is  of  more  far-reaching  effect  than  the  wind-break  of  a  single 
row  of  trees  ;  the  reduced  evaporation  from  the  fields  due 
to  this  protection  has  been  known  to  increase  the  yield  of 
field  crops  by  as  much  as  25  per  cent. 

c.    On   all    unsightly   places,    which    impair    the    general 


FORESTRY.  11 1 

aspect  of  the  farm — and  there  are  few  farms  without  these 
— a  few  trees,  a  small  grove,  will  add  to  the  thrifty  appear- 
ance of  the  farm,  make  useful  the  otherwise  waste  spots, 
and  serve  as  shelter  to  grazing  cattle,  etc. 

Altogether,  the  farmer  should  realize  that  husbandry  of 
soil  and  water  is  the  secret  of  future  success,  and  that 
successful  v/ater  management  is  best  attained  by  the  main- 
tenance of  properly  located  and  well-managed  forest  areas. 

There  is  much  extravagant  talk  about  the  influence  of 
forests  on  climate  and  on  rainfall  especially.  We  have  but 
little  definite  knowledge  on  these  subjects,  but  it  takes  no 
expert,  only  a  little  observation,  to  appreciate  the  effects  of 
a  wind-breaking  timber  belt  on  one's  own  feeling,  and  it 
takes  but  little  reasoning  to  appreciate  that  the  field  crop 
in  the  shelter  of  the  timber  belt  participates  in  this  feeling. 
The  dry  winds  are  the  great  bane  of  field  crops  in  the  West, 
because  they  dissipate  the  moisture  ;  a  timber  belt  breaks 
their  force  and  reduces  thereby  their  evaporating  power. 

Just  so  it  takes  no  great  philosopher  to  see  that  when 
rain  falls  on  naked  ground  it  compacts  that  ground  and  by 
and  by  prevents  itself  from  penetrating;  the  water  is  forced 
to  drain  off  superficially  and  rapidly,  instead  of  sinking  into 
the  ground  and  remaining  there  for  the  use  of  field  crops. 
And  that  the  washing  and  gullying  of  the  soil  is  also  a  result 
of  this  rushing  off  of  surface-waters,  due  to  the  clearing 
away  of  its  plant-cover,  requires  no  wise  man  to  point  out  ; 
every  farmer  experiences  it  more  or  less  every  year. 

That  any  one  farmer's  neglect  or  the  devastation  of  any 
small  part  of  the  forest  growth  should  have  an  influence  on 
the  rainfall  or  climate  of  the  whole  country  nobody  should 
claim;  but  the  conditions  surrounding  each  particular  farm, 
its  local  climate,  soil,  and  water  conditions,  are  changed, 
and  finally  the  aggregate  changes  make  themselves  felt  over 
the  whole  state. 

Now  as  to  the  management  of  the  wood-lot  a  few  hints 
may  be  acceptable.  The  farmer  may  not  necessarily  employ 
the  finer  methods  of  managing  the  wood-crop,  but  by  the 
mere  application  of  common  sense  and  a  little  knowledge 
of  tree-life  he  may  do  better  than  he  does  at  present. 


112  AGRICULTURE. 

He  should  at  least  observe  the  following  rules  : 

1.  Fire  should  be  carefully  kept  out  of  the  wood-lot, 
for  it  has  in  no  way  a  beneficial  effect.  It  kills  not  only  the 
undergrowth,  which  is  desirable  because  it  helps  to  shade 
the  soil,  and  injures,  if  it  does  not  kill,  the  young  tree 
growth,  which  is  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  growth,  but 
the  worst  effect  is  that  it  consumes  the  vegetable  mould 
which  has  accumulated  by  the  fall  and  decay  of  leaves, 
twigs,  and  other  vegetation,  and  which  forms  the  manure, 
the  fertility,  of  the  soil.  Fire  is  to  be  used  only  when 
through  bad  management  or  otherwise  a  dense  undesirable 
undergrowth  has  come  in,  which  it  is  too  expensive  to  re- 
move in  other  ways  when  the  time  for  natural  reproduction 
has  come  or  planting  is  to  be  done.  It  must  then  be  used 
with  caution  in  early  spring  or  late  fall,  before  the  brush  is 
too  dry,  when  the  fire  will  smoulder  rather  than  burn 
fiercely  and  can  be  kept  within  bounds. 

2.  Cattle  must  be  kept  out  where  young  forest  growth  is 
to  be  fostered.  Sheep  and  goats  especially  are  of  no  benefit 
to  wood-crops,  but  horses  and  cattle  may  be  allowed  to 
browse  through  the  wood-lot  where  the  young  growth  has 
passed  out  of  their  reach.  Pigs  are  a  benefit  by  working 
over  the  ground  and  thereby  burying  seeds,  especially 
acorns  ;  but  after  the  seed  is  so  brought  under  ground 
where  a  young  crop  is  expected  to  be  reared  next  year  they 
must  be  kept  out.  Altogether,  the  cattle  and  farm  animals 
should  be  kept  where  you  want  them,  and  not  where  you 
do  not  want  them.  Sometimes,  however,  the  roaming  of 
cattle  may  be  beneficial  by  keeping  down  too  dense  im- 
penetrable underbrush  in  young  sapling  growth. 

It  is  better  to  so  cut  and  manage  the  old  timber  that  a 
desirable  new  growth  will  spring  up  than  to  cut  clean  and 
replant.  Planting  should  be  done  only  where  there  is  no 
desirable  natural  tree  giowth.  Hence  where  there  is  a  well- 
established  wood-lot,  the  whole  management  of  the  crop 
consists  in  proper  cutting. 

How  this  is  best  done  cannot  be  described  readily  within 
the  short  space  of  this  article,  but  every  farmer  who  is 
interested    in    learning   the  principles  of  using  the  axe  to 


FORESTRY. 


113 


advantage  in  reproducing  a  wood  crop  or  how  to  establish 
a  wood-lot  can  obtain  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, free  of  charge,  a  pamphlet  entitled  "Forestry  for 
Farmers,"  in  which  in  plain  language  is  discussed  in  detail 
how  trees  and  forests  grow,  how  to  start  a  wood-crop,  and 
how  to  manage  the  wood-lot. 

It  does  not  exhaust  the  subject,  but  merely  teaches  the 
first  steps,  and  the  thinking  farmer  will  find  his  way  of  step- 
ping farther. 

NU3IBEPv   OF   TREES   ON    AN   ACKE.     (Egleston.) 

The  number  of  trees  needed  to  plant  an  acre  of  ground, 
at  various  distances  apart,  is  as  follows: 

2  ft.  apart  each  way   lo.Sgo 


3   "   by  2  ft 7,260 

3  "  apart  each  way  4,840 

4  "  "          "         "  2,722 

5  "  "         "         "  1,742 

6  "  "         "         "  1,210 
8  "  "         "         "  680 

10  "  "         "         "  435 


ft.  apart  each  way. 


302 

200 

135 

no 

90 

70 

50 


Rows  six  feet  apart,  and  trees  one  foot  apart  in  the  row, 
7260  trees  per  acre. 

Rows  eight  feet  apart,  and  one  foot  apart  in  the  row^ 
5445  trees  per  acre. 

Rows  ten  feet  apart,  and  one  foot  apart  in  the  row,  4356 
trees  per  acre. 

One  mile  of  wind-breaks  or  shelter-belt  requires  5280 
trees,  or  cuttings  for  a  single  row  one  foot  apart  in  the  row- 


114 


AGRICULTURE. 


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116 


AGRICULTUIIE. 


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inoo  "-^00  Tfvo 
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•  5  ©  i»  C  '9  ©  >S  ©  U5  S  <a  O  .5  ©  '«  O  '3  c  © 


FORESTRY. 


117 


STATES   AND    TERRITORIES  OBSERVING  ARBOR 
DAY,   AVITH   DATES.      (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


States. 

Year  of 
First  Ob- 
servance. 

Time  of  Observance. 

Alabama  . 

1887 
1890-91 

1886 
1885 
1887 
1886 
1887 
1886 
1888 

1884 

1887 

llU 

1888-89 
1887 
1889 
1886 
1885 
1876 

i8q2 

1886 
1887 
1872 
1887 
1886 

1884 

1890 

1889 

1893 
1884 
1882 

1889 
1887 
1887 

Uncertain. 
1884 
1875 

1890 
1885 
1892 
1883 

1889 
1888 
1892 

22d  of  February. 

Arizona  

First  Friday  after  ist  of  February. 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Florida     

Third  Friday  in  April. 

In  spring,  at  appointment  of  governor. 

January  8. 

Georcria              .... 

First  Friday  in  December. 

Idaho  

Last  Monday  in  April. 

Illinois        

Date  fixed  by  governor  and  superintend- 

ent of  public  instruction. 
Date  fixed    by  superintendent  of  public 

instruction. 
Do. 

Kansas 

Option  of  governor,  usually  in  April. 

Do. 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Option  of  parish  boards. 

Option  of  governor. 

Option  of  governor,  in  April. 

Massachusetts 

Last  Saturday  in  April, 
Option  of  governor. 

M  i  n  nesota 

Do. 

Mississippi 

Option  of  board  of  education. 

First  Friday  after  first  Tuesday  in  April. 

Third  Tuesday  of  April. 

22d  of  April. 

Montana 

Nevada     

Option  of  governor. 

New  Hampshire... 

New  Jersey  ... 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

Do. 
Option  of  governor,  in  April. 
Second  Friday  in  March. 
First  Friday  after  May  i. 

North  Carolina  .... 

North  Dakota 

Ohio   

Oklahoma 

6th  of  May.  by  proclamation  of  governor. 
In  April,  by  proclamation  of  govei^nor. 

Second  Friday  in  April. 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee         .   .  . 

Option  of  governor. 

Do. 
Variable. 

Option  of  governor. 

November,  at  designation  of  county  sup- 
erintendents. 
22d  of  February. 

Texas      

Option  of  governor. 

Fall  and  spring,  at  designation  of  super- 
intendent of  schools. 
Option  of  governor. 
Do. 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin         ..... 

W^yoming      .        . 

Washington 

Do. 

118 


AGRICULTURE. 


FOREST  FIRE    LAWS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

(Fernow.) 

(See  p.  io6  for  penalties  imposed.) 


State. 

Edition  of 
Code. 

Title. 

Chapter. 

Section. 

Alabatna 

C   C   1886      .  . 

4226-8 

1580-4 

384 

1414  15,  17-18 

1458,  1460-3 
1-2 

Arkansas^ -J 

California" 

Colorado     \ 

S.  &    H.'s    D. 

1894 

P.  C.  1886 

Mills,     G.     S. 

G.'s^.'i888.'  v.". 
Vol.  XVIII. 

10 

48 

36 

99 
93 

Connecticut' 

Delaware*  

19 

Florida                 . 

Laws  187Q 

3141 
1456-9 
6921 
18 

1882 

10 

38 

5 
3 

IJaho     

R.  S.  1887 

R.  S.  1895  

9 

R.  S.  1894  ..    . 
McLean's,  1888 
C.  L.  1889 

24 

Iowa.    -   

5 '85-92 
7276-8 

5-6 
817 

5 

Kentucky 

Louisiana      ....   ■ 

G.  S.  1888 

1884. 

29 

Maine 

100 

163 

328 

95 
29 
47 

Maryland.' 

Sup.  1888 

Michigan^ -j 

Howell's  A.  S. 

1882 

G.  S.  1878 

t 

J 

9402-4 
6 

Mississippi 

Missouri         • 

1892 

1091 
3613 

R  S    1889 

*  S.  1847:  Burning  off  permitted  when  consent  of  neighbors  is  secured 
after  i  day's  notice. 

3  Pol.  Code,  S.  3344-s  :  Persons  tiring  woods,  etc.,  liable  in  treble  dam- 
ages. Constable,  etc.,  may  order  any  inhabitants  liable  to  poll-tax  to 
assist  in  extinguishing  fire. 

3  Must  give  notice,  before  burning  off,  to  all  residents  within  one  mile, 
and  can  only  be  done  between  February  15  and  March  31,  unless  otherwise 
ordered  by  county  commissioner. 

*  Prohibits  building  fire  in  woods  without  owner's  permission,  and  with- 
out first  clearing  away  combustibles,  and  extinguishing  fire. 

6  Must  give  I  day's  notice,  before  burning  off,  to  adjoining  property 
owners,  and  then  only  betwen  Feb.  20  and  April  i. 

8  No  law  included  in  Revised  Statutes. 

'  Ch.  296,  S.  1-6,  G.  S.  1883  :  Duty  of  fire  wardens  to  post  warnings, 
extinguish  fires,  and  investigate  causes  of  fires. 

»  Supervisors  and  highway  commissioners  to  order  assistance  in  putting 
out  fires;  fine  $5-$5o  for  refusal  to  assist. 

»  See  act  of  April  18,  1895. 


FORESTRY. 
FOREST-FIRE   LiAV^'^— Continued. 


lid 


State. 


Montana^"   ..    .. 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey  11 

New  York 

North  Carolinai'-i 
North  Dakota. . . 

Ohiois 

Oregon!* 

Pennsylvania.  .. 

Rhode  Island..  . 
South  Carolinais 
South  Dakota.    . 

Tennessee^* 

Texas 

UtahiT 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia  . . 

Wisconsin   

Wyomingis   .... 

Arizona 

New  Mexico  ... 

Oklahoma' 9  


Edition  of 
Code. 


P.  C.  1895. 

5895 

G.  S.  1885. 
P.  S.  1891.. 

R.  S.  1877. 


R   S 

Vol.  1.^883.'.'.". 

1895 

R.  S.  1894 

Sess.  1893 

1894 

G.  S.  1886 

1893 

Dak.  Ter 

M.&  V.  C.  1884 

P.  C. 1889 

C.  L.  1888.  ... 
1894 ••  .. 


R.  S. 
R.  S. 
R.  S. 

1884 

1893. 


[8S7. 


Title. 


Fire. 
14 


Crim.  Stat. 


32 


Chapter. 


c.  c.  9-62 


P.  C.  40 


279 

lOI 


213 

181 


25 
37  entire. 


Section. 


1071-2 

6713 

4794 
3-7 
J  I  and  sup- 
(  plements. 

52-4 

7314-15 

6334 

Page  45 

j  Act  of  June 

I   II,  1879-81 

6 

151-7 
2398 
2277-8 

669-70 
4576 
4934 
3701-2 

81-84 
4406 

920-2 

608-9 
23*3-14 
2269-70 


»<•  Penalty  for  failing  to  extinguish  camp-fii  e  or  malicious  firing  of  woods, 
fine  not  exceeding  $5000,  or  imprisonment  not  exceeding  5  3'ears,  or  both. 

11  Ch.  188,  G.  P.  Laws  1888,  provides  detectives  for  violators  of  fire 
law.  Ch.  119,  Laws  1892,  and  Ch.  194,  Laws  1894,  provide  for  fire  mar- 
shals and  define  their  duties. 

12  Fine  $10  for  leaving  unextinguished  camp-fire.  Two  days'  notice  in 
writing  before  firing  one's  own  woods. 

13  S.  4750-1 :  Penalty  for  refusing  to  assist  in  extinguishing  fires,  fine  $10. 
1*  Requires  governor  to  issue  proclamation  annually  July  i,  warning 

people  against  forest  fires. 

1*  If  turpentine  farm,  fine  $500,  or  penitentiary  i  year. 

**  Owner  may  fire  his  own  woods  after  two  days'  notice  to  neighbors. 

1''  Ch.  27,  Laws  1892:  Duty  of  county  sheriffs  to  extinguish  fires. 

18  Permits  firing  grass  and  sage-bush  March,  April,  and  October,  if  kept 
within  control. 

i»  Camp-fires,  and  regulations  for  burning  off  prairies,  etc.,  Ch.  37  (enacted 
1890)  provides  penalties  for  setting  fires  and  failure  to  extinguish. 


120  AGRICULTURE. 

FOREST-FIRE  L AAVS—  Continued. 

PENALTY  PRESCRIBED  BY  STATE  LAWS. 

Alabama. — Fine    $io-$2oo;    if    turpentine    forest,    $ioo-$iooo,  or   hard 
labor  for  not  more  than  12  months. 

Arkansas.— Y\ne.    $25-$30o,    or    jail    10-60    days.      Liable    for    double 
damages. 
(      California.— Y'n\z  not  more  than  $1000,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year,  or 
both. 

Color  ado. ~-Y\\\&  $5o-$3oo.  or  jail  15  days  to  3  months,  or  both.     If  on  State 
lands,  $5o-$5oo,  or  jail  20  days  to  6  months. 

Connecticut.— Y\ne  $20-^200,  or  jail  2-6  months,  or  both.     Fine  $i-$50, 
or  jail  not  more  than  30  days. 

Delaware. — Fine  $25. 

Florida.— ¥in&  not  more  than  $100,  or  jail  not  more  than  60  days. 

Georgia. — Fine  not  more  than  $1000,  or  i  year  in  chain-gang,  or  both. 

/^rtAtf.— Misdemeanor. 

Illinois.  — Fine  $5-$ioo. 

Indiana.— Fine  $5-$ioo,  to  which  may  be  added  imprisonment  not  more 
than  30  days. 

Iowa. — Fine  not  exceeding  $500,  or  jail  not  exceeding  i  year. 

Kansas.— Fine  $5o-$5oo,  or  jail  10  days  to  6  months,  or  both. 

Kentucky,— Fine  $100,  or  in  discretion  of  jury. 

Louisiana. —  Fine  $5-$5oo. 

Maine.— Fine  not  exceeding  $100,  or  jail  not  exceeding  30  days,  or  both. 

Massachusetts  .—Fine  not  more  than  $100,  or  jail  not  more  than  6  months. 
..Michigan.— Fine  not  more  than  $100,  or  jail  not  more  than  1  year,  or 
both. 

Minnesota. — State  prison  6  months  to  2  years, 

Mississippi. — Fine  $2o-$5co,  or  jail  not  more  than  3  months,  or  both. 

Missouri  — Fine  not  more  than  $500,  or  jail  not  more  than  12  months. 

Montana.— FinQ  not  more  than  $1000,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year. 

Nebraska.— Fine  S5-S100,  and  jail  1-6  months. 

Nevada.— Fine  S200-S1000,  or  jail  10  days  to  6  months,  or  both. 

Ntiv  Hampshire.— Fine  $io-$2ooo,  or  imprisonment  not  more  than  3 
years. 

New  /ersey.— Fine  not  more  than  $100,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year,  or 
both. 

New  York— Fine  not  exceeding  $1000,  or  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
1  year. 

North  Carolina.— Fine  S50. 

North  Dakota.— V^'i\iu\.  a  misdemeanor  ;  negligent,  fine  Sio-$ioo. 

Ohio. — Fine  not  more  than  Sioo,  or  jail  not  more  than  20  days,  or  both. 

Oregon, — Fine  $io-$iooo,  and  in  certain  cases  penitentiary  not  exceed, 
ing  I  year. 

Pennsylvania.— Fine  not  more  than  $300,  or  jail  not  more  than  1  year* 
or  both. 


FORESTRY.  ISl 

Rhode  /i-Aiw^/.— Imprisonment  not  exceeding  2  years. 

South  Cnrolitin.—Yine.  S5-$ioo,  or  jail  not  more  than  30  days. 

South  Dakota.— Y'lm  not  more  than  $200,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year, 
or  both. 

Tennessee. — Forfeit  $100  to  prosecutor  and  fine  $5-$5o  (S.  2277,  Code 
Sup.  1893). 

Texas. — Fine  $50-300, 

Utah. — Misdemeanor, 

Vermont.— ¥'\xi&  not  more  than  S500,  or  penitentiary  not  more  than  5 
years. 

Virginia.— Yint  S5-S100,  and  jail  1-6  months. 

West  Virginia.— Yine  $io-Siooo,  or  jail  not  more  than  12  months. 

Wisconsin. — Fine  not  more  than  S500,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year, 

Wyoming. — Fine  not  more  than  S500,  or  jail  30  days  to  6  months. 

.<4r/z£»«rt,— Misdemeanor.  If  on  State  or  U.  S,  lands,  fine  not  more  than 
$1000,  or  jail  not  more  than  i  year,  or  both. 

New  Mexico.— Yine  $6o-S5oo, 

Oklahoma.— Y'lnt  $10 -$500,  or  jail  not  more  than  1  year,  or  both. 


123  AGlUCULtURfi. 


X.    MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS. 


It  is  amatter  of  common  experience  among  farmers  that  the 
soil  is  impoverished  by  continuous  cropping,  and  the  yields 
obtained  therefore  gradually  decreased.  The  decrease  in 
yields  can  only  be  prevented  by  applications  of  farmyard 
manure  or  commercial  fertilizers;  ploughing  and  thorough 
cultivation  of  the  soil  bring  the  land  in  a  better  mechanical 
condition  and  increase  the  amount  of  available  plant  food 
present  in  the  soil,  but  these  operations  are  not  sufficient 
to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  land  so  that  it  will  yield 
equally  well  from  year  to  year  under  otherwise  favorable 
conditions.  Every  crop  harvested  contains  certain  quan- 
tities of  fertilizing  ingredients,  and  taking  away  these 
amounts  in  general  leaves  the  soil  in  a  poorer  condition  for 
the  production  of  crops  than  it  was  before. 

The  fertilizing  ingredients  of  which  the  soil  is  thus  liable 
to  be  robbed  are  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen,  and 
sometimes  lime.  They  are  not  present  as  such  in  the  soil, 
or  in  the  fertilizers  applied  to  the  soil,  but  in  chemical  com- 
binations with  a  large  variety  of  compounds.  The  soil  will 
contain  nearly  all  the  different  elements  which  chemJsts 
have  so  far  succeeded  in  isolating,  but  it  is  mainly  the 
three  elements,  potassium,  phosphorus,  and  nitrogen, 
which  are  apt  to  be  decreased  in  the  soil  below  the  amounts 
required  for  the  nutrition  of  crops,  or  at  least  of  maxi- 
mum crops.  In  rational  fertilization  the  effort  therefore 
always  is  to  return  to  the  soil  such  quantities  of  fertilizing 
ingredients,  in  the  shape  of  farmyard  manure  or  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  as  will  restore  the  loss  sustained  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  crops  harvested.  Other  mineral  ingre- 
dients contained  in  the  crops  need  not  generally  be  re- 
turned to  the  soil,  since  they  are  nearly  everywhere  pres- 
ent in  abundance. 


MANURES   AKD    FERTILIZERS. 


123 


It  is  the  grand  work  done  for  the  farmer  by  agricultural 
chemistry  during  the  past  half  century  which  has  ex- 
plained the  causes  of  the  decreased  fertility  of  land  due 
to  continuous  cropping,  and  has  given  the  remedies  for 
maintaining  the  fertility.     The  latter  are  as  follows: 

First,  by  selling  only  such  products  from  the  farm  as  will 
deprive  the  soil  of  the  smallest  quantities  of  fertilizing  in- 
gredients, i.e.,  manufactured  products,  like  milk,  cream, 
butter,  meat,  eggs,  rather  than  grain  crops,  hay,  etc.  The 
tables  given  on  pp.  126-129  show  the  amounts  of  fertilizing 
ingredients  removed  in  farm  products  of  various  kinds  and 
deserve  a  close  study  by  all  farmers. 

Secondly,  by  carefully  saving  the  manure  produced  by 
stock — both  liquid  and  solid  (the  former  by  the  use  of  ab- 
sorbents, peat,  land  plaster,  kainit,  superphosphate,  shav- 
ings, etc.,  or  by  building  special  cisterns  for  storing  it;  the 
latter  by  placing  it  under  shelter,  guarding  against  leakage) 
— and  returning  it  to  the  land ;  as  the  products  sold  off  the  land 
also  contain  certain  quantities  of  fertilizing  constituents, 
the  loss  must  be  repaired  by  purchase  of  concentrated  food 
stuffs,  at  least  three  fourths  of  whose  valuable  ash  ingredi- 
ents will  go  into  the  manure  and  thus  be  saved  for  crops. 

Thirdly,  by  following  a  rational  system  of  rotation  of 
crops,  and  by  frequent  culture  of  leguminous  crops, — 
clovers,  peas,  beans,  etc., — since  these  are  able  to  so  fix 
the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  as  to  render  it  of  value  to  ani- 
mals and  plants. 

APPROXIMATE    LOSSES  OF  FERTILIZING  MATE- 
RIALS IN  DIFFERENT  SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING. 

(Snyder.) 


System  of  Farming. 


All  grain-farming 

Mixed  grain-  and  general  farming. . 
Mixed  potato-  and  general  farming. 

Stock-farming 

Dairy-farming 


Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 
Acid, 

lbs. 

lbs. 

5600 
2600 

2500 
1000 

2300 

1» 

1000 
50* 
75* 

Potash. 


lbs. 
4200 
1000 
2400 
60 
8S 


♦Gain. 


lU 


AGUiCULTUKi:. 


The  figures  given  show  the  approximate  losses  on  a 
i6o-acre  farm  under  the  different  systems  of  farming. 
With  stock-  and  dairy-farming,  as  well  as  partly  in  mixed 
grain-  and  general  farming,  the  loss  of  nitrogen  may  be 
avoided  by  growing  clover.  In  stock-  and  dairy-farming, 
therefore,  no  loss  of  fertility  will  occur  under  these  con- 
ditions when  all  the  skim-milk  is  fed  on  the  farm  and  a 
part  of  the  grain  is  exchanged  for  more  concentrated  milled 
products,  but  there  will  on  the  contrary  be  a  constant 
gain  of  fertility  to  the  soil.  (See  Bull.  41,  Minn.  Exp. 
Station.) 

AVERAGE    CHE31ICAL.    C03IP0SITI0N    OP    SOILS. 

(King.) 


XI -a 

jl 

"O  0    . 

"5 
p., 

.2 

c 
fcx 

1 

0 

'i 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

•Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Sandy  soils... 

93.21 

2.61 

.121 

.CSX 

.085 

.048 

.087 

Clayey  soils  . . 

68 

21 

6.53 

•319 

.128 

.617 

.456 

.141 

Humus  soils. 

35 

89 

13-94 

•639 

.109 

3.786 

.886 

.150 

Loess  soils  — 

68 

8S 

1. 21 

.435 

.165 

5.820 

3.692 

.200 

Humid  soils... 

84 

0^ 

3-64 

.216 

.091 

.108 

.225 

"3 

Arid  soils 

70-57 

4-95 

.729 

.264 

T.362 

1. 411 

.117 

JIAXUIJFS    AND    FERTILIZERS. 


MANUKIAL,  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

Chart  shoiving  Pounds  of  Fertilizing  Constituents  of  Feeding 

Sttiffs  in  one  Ton,  and  the  Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs, 

according  to  the  Valuation  given. 

'Nitrogen         Phosphoric  Acid  Potash 


Price  per  pound  12  cts.  4>^  cts.  VA  cts. 

Black  Bar  represents  Manurial  Value  per  Ton. 

'         '20    '40     '60     '80     '100  '120  '140  '160' IJO  '200 lbs. 
Qreencomfodder^^^^  $1.42  ^- 

Oatfodder  ^3—1.64 

Green,  clover        ^^3^1.80 
Ccm  silage  f^W\     1 .10 

Corn  stalks  t^--'-\i;^=tyyV^'^  1 02 

(stover)  Hi-  "til  *•"« 

Timothy  hay       Y~'      \--=:     ~l  4.3I 

Red  clover  hay    ?  T^^v  -"i  7-29 

Wheat  straw 
Potatoes 

Turnips 
Indian  corn 
(maize) 

Wheat 

Barley 

Oata 

Rye 


' —  1 

_^  <i  ^^ 

r 

— 1 77 

c 

-t-,  1 

Pea  meal  g 


Iluckwheat  ^'.,'   ::^^^\  4  04 

Corn  ^  cob  meal  Y.      '  '   3=  ^  ^  32 

Corn  cob 

Wheat  bran         ^ 

Wheat  middlinr/s'- 

Rice  bran  V'" 

Linseed  meat      __ 

O.P.  E^ 

Xinseed  meal      r— 

N.P.  i— 

Cotton  seed  meal  F 
Cotton  seed  ImllsT 


16.77 


Gluten  mccl        ]^ 
Malt  sprouts      \ 
Brewers'  grains  ^^ 


100   120   140  160    180   200  lb* 


126 


AGRICITLTUIIE. 


FERTILIZIXG    COXSTITUEXTS    OF    FEEDING 
STUFFS   AND    FAK3I    PIIODUCTS. 

(Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Material. 


Green  Fodders. 


Pasture  grass  . .  . . 
(ireen  fodder  corn. 
Sorghum  fodder.   . 

Rye  fodder 

Oat  fodder 

Timothy  grass 

Red  clover 

White  clover 

Alsike  clover 

Scarlet  clover 

Alfalfa  (lucern) 

Cowpea 

Soja  bean   

Prickly  comfrey  .  . . 
Corn  silage 


Hay  and  Dry  Coarse  Fodders. 

Fodder  corn  (with  ears)    

Corn  stover  (without  ears) 

Hungarian  grass. 

Common  millet 

Hay  of  mixed  grasses 

Red-top • .. 

Timothy 

Red  clover. 

Rl  ammoth  red  clover 

White  clover 

Scarlet  clover 

Alsike  clover 

Alfalfa 

Barley  straw. 

"      chaff 

Wheat  straw 

*'      chaff 

Rye  straw 

Oat      "     

Buckwheat  hulls 


Roots,  Bulbs,  Tubers,  etc. 

Potatoes 

Sweet  potatoes 

i-  ed  beets.   

Yellow  fodder  beets 

Sugar  beets 

Mangel-wurzels 

Turnips 

Rutabagas 

Carrots 


per  ct. 
63.1 
78.6 
82.2 
62.1 
83-4 
66.9 
80.0 
81.0 

ffr.3 
02.5 

75-3 
78.8 
73-2 
84.4 
78.0 


7-85 
9.12 
7.69 
9-75 
11.99 
7.71 
7.52 
"•33 
II. 41 


18  30 
9.94 

6.55 
11.44 
13  08 
12.56 
8.05 
7.61 
9.09 
11.90 


79.24 
71.26 
87-73 
90  60 

86  95 

87  29 
89.49 
89  13 
89.79 


per  ct. 
3.27  . 


I 

31 

2 

15 

I 

47 

2 

25 

I 

47 

2 

45 

4.91 

3-74 
6.18 

6.34 
4-59 
4  93 
6-93 
8.72 


7  07 
5  30 

"3-8i' 
7.18 
3-25 
4.76 


.06 


per  ct. 
91 
41 
23 
33 
49 
48 
53 
50 
44 
43 
72 
27 
29 
42 
28 


1.76 
1.04 
1.20 
1.28 
1. 41 
I-I5 
1.26 
2.07 
2  23 
2.75 
2.05 
2-34 
2. 19 
1-31 
I  .oi 
•59 

.46 
.62 


03. 


per  ct. 
•23 
•15 
.09 
•15 
•^3 
.26 

•13 
.20 
.  II 
•13 
•13 


MANURES    AND    FERTILIZERS. 


12^ 


FERTILiIZING    CONSTITUENTS    OF    FEEDING 
STUFFS   AND  FARM  PRODUCTS.— (Cc.«/e««.^^.) 


Material, 


Grains  and  Other  Seeds. 

Corn. 

Sorghum  seed 

Barley 

Oats 

Wheat,  spring 

"       winter 

Rye 

Millet,  common 

Japanese  millet 

Rice  

Buckwheat 

Soja  beans 


Other  Concentrated  Feeds. 

Corn  meal 

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Ground  oats 

"       barley. , 

Wheat  flour 

Pea  meal 

Corn  cobs 

Hominy  feed 

Gluien  meal 

Starch  feed  (glucose  refuse)  . 

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'  grains,  dry 

'  "       wet 

Rye  bran    

"■  middlings . 

Wheat  bran 

"       middlings 

Rice  bran 

"    polish 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Cotton-seed  meal 

hulls 

Linseed  meal  (old  process). .. 
"  "     (new  process).. 

Apples,  fruit 

Apple  pomace 


Dairy  Products,  etc. 

Whole  milk 

Skim-milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk .. 

Whey „  

Butter 

Cheese 

Live  cattle , 

Sheep 

Swine 


per  ct. 
10.88 
14.00 
14-30 
18.17 
14-35 
14-75 
14.90 
12.68 
13.68 
12.60 
14.10 
18.33 


12.95 
8.96 

11.17 

13-43 
9.83 
8.8s 

12.09 
8.93 
8-59 
8.10 


18.38 

9.14 

75  01 

12.50 

12.54 

11.74 

9.18 

10.20 

10.30 

14.70 

7.81 

10.17 

8.88 

7-77 

85.30 

80.50 


87.00 

90.25 

74-05 

90.50 

92.97 

79.10 

33  25 

50  2 

44.8 

42  o 


per  ct. 
1-53 


2.48 


3-37 
2.06 


3-92 


4.60 
352 
6.25 
2.30 
12.94 
9.00 
1.40 

6.9s 
2.40 
6.08 
5-37 
-39 
.27 


c  a 


per  ct. 

1.82 
1.48 
1-51 
2.06 
2.36 
2. 36 
1.76 
2.04 

1-73 
1.08 
1.44 
5-30 


1.58 
1. 41 
1.86 

1-55 
2.21 
3.08 

•50 
1.63 
5-03 
2.62 
3-55 
3.62 

.89 
2.32 
1.84 
2.67 
2.63 

•  71 
1.97 
1.38 
6.79 

.69 
5-43 
5.78 

•13 

-23 


O  x;  o 


per  ct. 
70 


-63 
•57 
•77 
.66 
■SI 
.82 
.06 
.98 

•33 
.29 

-43 
-03 
•31 


-15 
•17 
.14 
04 
.60 
•76 
-13 
•73 


128 


AGRICULTURE. 


AMOUNT     OF     SOIL    INGRFDIKXTS    WITHDRAWX 
BY    VAUIOUS    CROPS,  IX    LBS.  PER   ACRE. 

(HiLGARD.) 


Crops. 


Grapes,  i,ooo  lbs  

Crop  of  10,000  lbs 

Seeds,  646  lbs 

Flesh,  9,154  lbs 

Wood,  2,010  lbs 

Prunes,  1,000  lbs 

Crop  of  30,000  lbs 

Pits,  1,635  lbs 

Flesh,  38,365  lbs 

Apricots,  1,000  lbs 

Crop  of  30,000  lbs 

Pits,  1,740  lbs  

Flesh,  28,260  lbs 

Oranges,  1,000  lbs 

Crop  of  20,000  lbs 

Seeds,  240  lbs  

Flesh  and  rind,  19,760  lbs 

Roots,  percentage 

Stems,  "  

Leaves         "  

Olives,  1,000  lbs 

Crop  of  2,200  lbs 

Pits,  429  lbs     

Flesh,  1,771  lbs 

Leaves,  4,400  lbs 

Wood,  11,000  lbs 

Wheat,  1,000  lbs.  (whole  plant) 

Crop  of  4,800  lbs.  (hay) 

Grain,  20  bushels 

Straw,  3,600  lbs 

Alfalfa,  1,000  lbs   

Crop  of  12,000  lbs 

Sugar  beets  (fresh),  1,000  lbs. . , 

Crop  of  72,000  lbs 

Roots,  40,000  lbs 

Tops,  32,000  lbs 

Ramie,  i. 000  lbs <. 

Crop  of  14.25  tons 

Leaves,  4.25  tons.  

Stalk  (without  bark),  7.25  tons. 

Bark   (cuticle   and   fibre),    2.75 

tons 

Cotton,  i.ooo  lbs 

Crop  of  3,200  lbs 

Leaves,  400  lbs 

Stems,  1,200  lbs 

Seeds,  800  lbs  

Burs,  400  lbs 

Lint,  400  lbs o.  ... 


53-42 

3-03 

1 20 . 90 

8.60 

112.30 

5.16 

154.80 

12.25 

142-55 

432 

86.40 

6.90 

79  50 

TOO. 12 
100.00 

99.91 

94-63 
208.18 
19325 

14.56 
190. 16 
123.18 

51.26 
246.04 

24.00 
222.04 

65  .00 
780.00 

18.73 
1349-72 
287.00 
1062. 72 

75-19 

2143-57 

641-35 

410.48 

91-74 
54.26 
173.60 
48.69 
38-44 
29 -37 
52.01 
5-09 


0    • 

a 

^•o 

c 

s 

8< 

0 

-2 

0 

J3 

Oh 

'-' 

0H 

U 

2 

5.00 

1. 00 

1.52 

.10 

1.70 

50.00 

10.00 

15.20 

1. 00 

17.00 

1.48 

5-75 

47-44 
15.69 

8-93 
•  8.74 

21.60 

.61 

2.66 

-13 

•53 

.01 

1.48 

79.70 

3-9^ 

15-95 

.22 

44.40 

2.06 

•52 

2.80 

.02 

10.30 

77.64 

3-40 

13-15 

.20 

34.10 

2.83 

.18 

-71 

.02 

2.29 

84.98 

5-45 

21.38 

-94 

68.70 

1.30 

-83 

5.3b 

.19 

15.00 

83.62 

4-65 

16.02 

•75 

53-70 

2. II 

.99 

-53 

.04 

1.83 

42.28 

19.72 

10.60 

.80 

36.60 

2.74 

t.32 

1. 61 

.04 

39-54 

18.40 

8.99 

.76 

15.43 

49-89 

13-47 

•7^ 



11.69 

55   13 

17.09 

-'5 

10.51 

56.38 

3.27 

4 -03 

8-55 

2.32 

1. 18 

•23 

5.85 

18  81 

5-IO 

2.59 

-50 

12.86 

0.77 

4.01 

2.40 

.48 

9.67 

12.04 

1.09 

-19 

.02 

3-19 

58.05 

88. S3 

20.08 

.28 

69  90 

24.46 

66.63 

14.87 

117.67 

9-15 

2.30 

4-13 

r.^S 

8.75 

43-92 

11.04 

19.80 

7-89 

42.00 

7.85 

-72 

11.90 

.02 

24  00 

36.07 

10.32 

7  90 

787 

18.00 

13-49 

22.86 

6  43 

1-59 

12.96 

161.88 

274  32 

77.10 

iq.o8 

155-52 

5-38 

3-II 

1. 61 

.86 

2.38 

387-44 

224.08 

116. 16 

61. 63 

173.40 

152.00 

16.00 

36.00 

12.00 

60.40 

235-44 

208  08 

80.16 

4968 

113.00 

8.84 

23.08 

6  46 

1.12 

12.97 

251.98 

657.82 

155-70 

51.8s 

369.70 

68.13 

566.91 

77.13 

41.56 

206  10 

155-99 

71.77 

67.71 

2.50 

105.85 

27.86 

19.14 

10.86 

7-79 

57.7s 

11.00 

13.76 

7-03 

2.58 

35.26 

44-04 

22.54 

8.27 



7-99 

15-03 

4.22 

2.75 

9.17 

10.58 

4-49 

2.54 

8.99 

3-07 

9-74 

.48 

29.20 

7.42 

14.16 

3-57 

2.14 

1.69 

1.20 

•52 

.36 

MANURES   AND    FEETILIZERS. 


129 


o   o  ooo  ■«•«   ■^t^O   o^o 


-_--  .  .--.0Nt»000'«-0vO 

I  vo    t>.vo    t->  -fl-oo    ro  m\0    tv  lo  -^  N   VD  ■<t\o   -«•  0^<i    O  "100   W 

Ml-  M  fj  M 

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 


oooococcoooooooooooooooo 


o  o  m  o  oo  I 


O   iDVO    «   O 


o  ooo  o«  o 


o  C 
•c  bjo 


cooocoooooocoooooooeoooo 


C  vo    -9-  -j-         'T  . 


o  2,700  lbs. 
0  3,600  lbs. 
0  2,400  lbs. 

0  15  tons. 
0    2  tons. 
0  5,000  lbs. 
0  6,000  lbs. 

0  2}.^  tons, 
to  3,200  lbs. 

0  3,000  lbs. 

0  1,500  lbs. 
0  4,200  lbs. 
to  6,000  lbs. 
0  2  tons. 
00  lbs.  stem 

to  5  tons. 
0  3,200  lbs. 

f^AiTii-rii-i 

2,88"-  ■:S8 

t^  ►>  0       Q    ;  o\c 

000 

0    0    0 


:  o  c  o 


<A  tn       '-^^       t/5  05  « 

■  %  ^-i 

•    iJ    V          U          V    V    V 

—    u-  —    ~ 

■XI .Q  i:x>  hxxxi 

lbs. 
ton 
bus 
bus 

;vS8^^«'8?,8 

:  0  0  8  0 

vS           '^ 

.00000000 

.-'000 

^  ?,-  ;:>  ^  8  :^  8 

. 2  «A0  JO 

03      ■  — 


be 


isl 


—  He 


'  ?1     •  >-  W  c3 

>  c  9-^  IJ 


4J    " 


130 


AGRICULTURE. 


MINIMUM     A3IOUNT     OF     FARMYARD      MANURE 

required  to  replace  the  Int^reclients  abstracted  from 
the  Soil  by  an  Acre  of  Different  Crops.    (McConnell.) 


Wheat 5  tons. 

Barley 5 

Oats 5 

Meadow  hay 8 

Red  clover 12 

Beans 10 


Turnips 15  tons. 

Swedes 10 

Mangolds 20 

Potatoes 10 

Cabbage 25 

Carrots 10 


A3IOUNT   AND  QUALITY  OF  MANURE  PRODUCED 
BY    STOCK. 

The  various  classes  of  farm  animals  will  produce  about 
the  following  quantities  of  solid  and  liquid  manure  during 
a  year,  viz.: 

Solid  Manure.  Liquid  Manure. 

Horse 12,000  lbs.  3,000  lbs. 

Cow 20,000    "  8,000    " 

Sheep 760    "  380    " 

Pig 1,800   "  1,200    •' 

Since  a  considerable  portion  of  the  manure  is  lost  while 
the  animal  is  working  or  is  out-doors,  the  quantities  secured 
in  the  manure-pile  will  not  come  up  to  these  figures. 

The  quantities  of  urine  voided  by  farm  animals  during 
twenty-four  hours  are  on  the  average  as  follows,  accord- 
ing to  Wilckens  :  cows,  15-20  lbs.;  horses,  20-27  lbs.; 
sheep,  2  lbs.;  swine,  7-9  lbs.  The  capacity  for  liquid 
manure-tanks  or  cisterns  intended  to  hold  the  fluid  excre- 
ments of  a  herd  of  a  certain  size  may  readily  be  calculated 
on  a  basis  of  these  figures  (see  tables  on  p.  154).  6000  lbs. 
(about  720  gallons)  of  urine  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight  of 
cattle,  is  a  liberal  estimate. 

The  quality  of  the  manure  produced  will  depend  on  the 
character  of  the  feeding  and  the  kind  of  stock  kept.  Rich 
feeding  produces  a  rich  manure,  since,  as  shown  in  the 
table  given  below,  only  a  relatively  small  portion  of  the 
valuable  fertilizing  ingredients  of  the  food  is  retained  in 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS. 


131 


the  bodies  of  the  animals,  or  is  taken  away  in  the  producia 
sold.  Rich  feeding,  therefore,  has  a  beneficial  influence  in 
two  directions,  larger  yields  of  products  being  obtained, 
and  a  better  quality  of  manure  being  produced. 

COMPOSITION,  AMOUNT,  AND  VAL.UE  OF  MANURE 

Produced  t»y  DiflPerent  Kinds  of  Farm  Animals. 

(Results  of  experiments  conducted   at  Cornell   University   Experiment 
Station.) 


Analysis  and  Value  per  Ton  of 
Manure. 

Amount  and  Value  per 

1000  lbs.  Live  Weight 

per  Day. 

Is* 

III 

J3 

.ao 

Pounds 
Day. 

1)   *. 

m 

Sheep... 
Calves.. 
Pigs    ... 
Cows  . . . 
Horses  . 

Per  ct. 

59-52 
77-73 
74-13 
75-25 
48.69 

Per  ct. 

•77 
-50 
.84 
•43 

.49 

Per  ct. 
9-39 
•17 
-39 
.29 
.26 

Per  ct. 

•59 
•53 
•32 
•44 
.48 

$3.30 
2.18 
3^29 
2.02 
2.21 

i     34  •  I 
1     67.8 
1     83  6 
i     74-1 
48.8 

Cents. 

16.7 
8.0 
7.6 

$26  09 
24-45 
60.88 
29.27 
27.74 

QUANTITIES  OF   NITROGEN   AND  ASH  CONSTITU- 

cnts  Voided   by  Animals   or   Obtained   in   Animal 
Products.     (Lawes  and  Gilbert.) 


Percentage  of  Nitrogen. 

Percentage  of  Ash 
Constituents. 

Obtain- 
ed as 

Animal 
Prod- 
uct. 

Voided 
as  Solid 
Excre- 
ment. 

Voided 

as 
Liquid 
Excre- 
ment. 

In  Total 
Excre- 
ment. 

Obtained 
as  Live 
Weight 
or  Milk. 

Voided 
as  Excre- 
ment or 
Perspira- 
tion. 

Horse  at  rest  . . . 
Horse  at  work... 
Fattening  oxen  . 
Fattening  sheep. 
I'attening  pigs. 
Milking  cows 

None. 

None. 

3-9 

4-3 

14.7 

24-5 

43-0 
29.4 
22.6 
16.7 
22.0 
18. 1 

57.0 
70.0 
73-5 
79.0 
63-3 
57^4 

100. 0 
100. 0 
96.1 
95-7 
85-3 
75^5 

None. 

None. 
23 
3^8 
4.0 
10.3 

100. 0 
ICO.  9 
97-7 
96.2 
96.0 
89.7 

*  Valuing  nitrogen  at  15  cents,  pnospnoric  acid  at  6  cents,  and  potasU 
at  4i  cents  per  pound  (see  page  136). 


132 


AGRICULTURE. 


PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF    COMMERCIAIj 
FERTILIZING    MATERIALS.    (Real.) 


.1 

c 

is 

1 
0 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 

Name. 

6 

a 
0 

T3 

> 

0 

43 

a 

■J 

Algse  (Lytighia  maj'uscjtla). 
Ammonite 

16.26 
5-88 

4-25 
"-33 

-79 

2  06 

3-43     

^6.o8l    -    -- 

Ashes,  anthracite  coal 

"      bituminous  " 

.10 
.40 
1.20 
1.27 
5-25 
f.31 

.10 

.40 

1. 14 

1-51 
1.70 
3.80 

17.00 
23-25 

17.60 
20.10 
29.90 

"      lime-kiln 

15-45 
30.22 
12.50 
40.09 
7.00 
4.60 

8.20 

48.50 
28.08 

34.00 

4t.89 

Bat  guano 

Bone-ash        .       .       .... 

2-37 

1.24 

Bone-black 

15.40 
.40 

13 

53 

7-50 

4-05 

2.60 
6.20 
1.70 

"          "    dissolved     

"          "     free  from  fat 

"          "    from  glue  factory 
Carnallite 

13.60 

Caribbean  guano 

Castor  pomace     

7-31 
9-50 
7.80 
7-75 

24.27 

12.50 

12.75 

81.19 

22.28 

10.17 

3.20 

87-75 

22.70 

4.82 

7.27 

1-50 

1.50 

1.50 

1.50 

12.09 

13-32 

50.00 

60.00 

2.00 

7.60 

1.40 

8  54 

26.77 
1-75 
8.85 
2.88 
3.10 
13-35 

i.gi 

8.25 

.07 

39  95 

5-50 
6.79 

10.52 

7-25 

•35 

1. 10 

22.75 

1-77 

1.50 

•32 

1.25 

6.50 

9.60 

Cotton-seed  meal,  decort . . . 

Cuba  guano        

-55 

'  2.60 

Dried  blood    

Dried  fish .. 

Eel  -  grass  (z^j^^r<t  marina).. 
Gas  lime 

-51 
43-66 

13-25 
.20 

1.83 
*";o6 

Kainit  

Kelp  (latninafia) 

13-54 
.24 

I.I5 

2  82 

Krugite 

Lobster  shells   

Marls,  Kentucky 

"     Maryland  and  Virginia 
"     New  Jersey  green  sand 
"     North  Carolina 

Meat  scrap 

Mona  Island  guano  

Muck       

4-50 

10.44 

.76 

1. 10 

.40 

15  70 
12.12 

8.42 

.1-3 

-2-5 
3-5-7 
.2-1.5 

3-52 

.2 

.0-2 

.1-4 

0-.4 

2.07 

21.88 

.10 

.10 

12.45 
22.24 
3-34 
0-40 
1-9 
5-45 

■15 

7-55 

37-49 

Mud   salt                      

.90 

34.27 

37.45 

Oleomargarine  refuse 

.88 

1 

MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS. 


133 


PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION    OP   C03IMEKCIAL. 
FERTILIZING    MA.TETIIAIjS— Con  tz  fined. 


Name. 


Oyster-shell  lime* 

Peat   

Peruvian  guano 

Phosphates,  Florida... 

Plaster,  puret , 

Seaweed 

ashes 

"        mixed 


Sewage  sludge,  precipitated 
Soot 


S.  Carolina  rock,  dissolved. 
"  "  "       ground... 

Spent  tan-bark  ashes 

Sumac  waste 

Sulfate  of  ammonia   

Sulfate  of  potash  and  mag 

nesia   

Sulfate  of  potash,  high  grade 

Sylvanite. 

Tankage — 

Thomas  slag 

Tobacco  stalks 

"        stems 

Wool  washings 

Wool  waste 


Composition  of  Farm 

Manures. 

Barnyard  manure,  average.. 

Cattle  excrement,  solid, fresh 

Cattle  urine,  fresh 

Hen  manure,  fresh 

Horse  excrement,  solid 

Horse  urine,  fresh 

Human  excrement,  solid 

Human  urine 

Pigeon  manure,  dry 

Poudrette,  night  soil 

Sheep  excrement.  solid,fresh 

Sheep  urine,  fresh 

Stable  manure,  mixed 

Swine  excrement,  solid, fresh 
Swine  urine,  fresh 


15 

61.50 
14.81 
2.25 


81.90 

1-47 

81.50 

88.49 

5-54 


1.50 

3.61 

63.06 


4-75 
2-54 
7-25 

10.00 
1.45 
6.18 

10.00 


68.87 


77.20 
95.90 
10.00 
50.00 


.85 
7-35 


1. 19 
20.50 


6.70 


371 

2-35 


6.50 


.40 
.92 

1.50 
•05 

1.83 


2.04 
3-25 


25-50 
33  40 
16.65 


5.02 
8.20 


392 

tl.20 


•43 
.  10 
•49 
.56 
■35 

1.50 
•25 
.20 

1 .00 
•30 
•15 

2.26 
.60 
•13 
•83 


Phosphoric  Acid. 


11.60 
•27,       ^07 


5 
3.06 


.08 
15  •so 
24  50 


15.20 

28.03 

1. 6 1 


11.80 

23-49 

.65 

.70 


■35 


*  18.5  per  cent  carbonate. 

+  Nova  Scotia  plaster  contains  94  per  cent  pure  gypsum  and  4  per  cent 
carbonate  of  lime;  Onondaga  and  Cayuga,  65-75  per  cent  gypsum  and 
18-28  per  cent  carbonate  of  lime. 

$  Sometimes  as  high  as  5  per  cent. 


134  AGRICULTURE. 

EXHAUSTION    OF    FERTILIZERS.     (Scotch  Authority.) 
ON   CULTIVATED    CLAY   LOAM. 


Kind  of  Fertilizer. 


Lime 

Bone  meal 

Phosphatic  guanos 

Dissolved  bones  and  plain  superphos- 
phates    

High-g^rade  ammoniated  fertilizers, 
guano,  etc , 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Stable  manure 


Per  Cent  remaining  in  the 

Soil  Unexhausted  at 

End  of  Each  of  First 

Six  Years. 


2 

3 

4 

5 

65 

55 

45 

35 

30 

20 

10 

30 

20 

10 

10 

' 

20 

^0 

20 

10 

30 

20 

10 

ON  CULTIVATED   LIGHT  OR  MEDIUM   SOILS. 


Lime 

Bone  meal 

Phosphatic  guanos 

Dissolved  bones  and   plain  superphos 

phaie 

High-grade  ammoniates,  guanos 

Cotion-seed  meal 

Stable  manure . . 


to 

75 

60 

40 

30 

20 

15 

4 

60 

30 

10 

50 

20 

10 

•• 

20 

10 

5 

.. 

.. 

30 

20 

40 

30 

20 

10 

60 

30 

ID 

•• 

•• 

ON   CULTIVATED   PASTURE  LAND. 


Lime 

Bone  meal 

Phosphatic  guanos   

Dissolved  bone,  etc   

High-grade  ammoniated  guanos 

Cotton-seed  meal   

Stable  manure 


80 

70 

60 

60 

50 

40 

50 

40 

30 

30 

2Q 

10 

30 

20 

10 

40 

30 

20 

60 

50 

40 

Sulfate  of  ammonia,  nitrate  of  soda,  sulfate,  nitrate, 
and  muriate  of  potash  are  generally  held  to  be  entirely 
exhausted  by  the  crops  grown  the  season  of  their  applica- 
tion. 


MAiJURES  AIJD  FERTILIZERS. 


135 


ISQUIVAIiENT   QUANTITIES   OF  FERTILIZING 
MATERIALS.     (Wheeler  and  Hartwell.) 


For 


loo  lbs.  nitrate  of 
soda 

loo  lbs.  sulfate 
of  ammonia 

loo  lbs.  dried 
blood 

loo  lbs.  cotton- 
seed meal 

loolbs.  diss,  phos- 
phate rock 

loolbs.  diss,  bone 
black 

loo  lbs.  double 
superphosphate 

■r 

loo  lbs.  tank-  ' 
age  ^ 

I 

r 


lbs.    d  ry  J 
ground  fish     ', 


loo    lbs.    fine-  J 
ground  bone  "^ 


May  be  Substituted  any  One  of  these  Materials. 


76    lbs.   sulfate  of 

141     lbs.    dried 

235    lbs.  cotton 

ammonia 

blood 

seed  meal. 

132  lbs.  nitrate  of 

186    lbs.    dried 

311  lbs.  cotton. 

soda 

blood 

seed  meal 

71   lbs.   nitrate  of 

54  lbs.   sulfate  of 

167  lbs.   cotton- 

soda 

ammonia 

seed  meal 

43  lbs.   nitrate  of 

32  lbs.   sulfate  of 

60    lbs.    dried 

soda 

ammonia 

blood 

76  lbs.  diss,    bone 

33  lbs.  double  su- 

black 

perphosphate 

131  lbs.  diss,  phos 

43  lbs.   double  su- 

phate rock 

perphosphate 

308  lbs.  diss,  phos- 

235 lbs.    double 

phate  rock 

superphosphate 

39  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  and  38  lbs.  phosphate  rock. 

29  lbs.  sulfate    of    ammonia    and    38    lbs.  phosphate 
rock. 

55  lbs.  dried  blood  and  38  lbs.  phosphate  rock. 
91  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal  and  38  lbs.  phosphate  rock. 
80  lbs.  dry  ground  fish  and  14  lbs.  phosphate  rock. 
33  lbs. .nitrate  of  soda  and  4.5  lbs.  fine-ground  bone. 
48  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  and  31  lbs.  diss,  phosphato  rock. 
37  lbs.  sulfate  of  ammonia  and  31  lbs.  diss,  phosphate 

rock. 
68  lbs.  dried  blood  and  31  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock. 
113  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal  and  31  lbs.  diss,  phosphate 

rock. 
80  lbs.  tankage  and  17  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda. 
36  lbs.  fine  ground  bone  and  44  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda. 
13  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  and  85  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock. 
10  lbs.  sulfate  of  ammonia  and  85  lbs.  diss,  phosphate 

rock. 
18  lbs.  dried  blood  and  85  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock. 

30  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal  and  85  lbs,  diss,  phosphate 
rock. 

33  lbs.  tankage  and  72  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock. 

27  lbs.  dry  ground  fish  and  76  lbs.  diss,  phosphate  rock 


136  AGRICULTURE. 

VALiUATION    OF   MANURES   AND  FERTILIZERS. 

The  valuation  of  fertilizing  ingredients  shown  below  (see 
p.  137)  is  the  one  agreed  upon  by  a  number  of  Eastern 
experiment  and  fertilizer  control  stations  after  a  careful 
study  of  the  retail  prices  of  crude  products  of  fertilizers 
during  the  six  months  prior  to  March  i,  1896.  It  expresses 
the  commercial  value  of  the  fertilizers,  and  not  their  agri- 
cultural value,  which  will  vary  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  land  and  the  character  of  the  crops  grown. 
Fertilizers  are  sold  in  States  having  fertilizer  control,  on 
the  basis  of  a  guarantee  of  a  minimum  content  of  potash, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen,  singly  or  combined,  and  it 
is  the  office  of  the  fertilizer  control  stations  to  watch  that 
goods  offered  for  sale  in  their  respective  states  are  up  to 
the  guarantee.  Farmers  living  in  states  where  fertilizer 
laws  are  enacted  (Alabama,  Arkansas,  Connecticut,  Dela- 
ware, Florida,  Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Louis- 
iana, Maine,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Missis- 
sippi, Missouri,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South 
Carolina,  Tennessee,  Vermont,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Wis- 
consin) should  not  buy  fertilizers  except  on  guarantee;  and 
should  examine  the  fertilizer  bulletins  published  by  their 
respective  stations  to  ascertain  that  the  goods  put  on  the 
market  are  not  below  the  guarantee,  and  that  the  valuation 
price  is  not  below  the  selling  price  of  the  article.  Where 
a  reasonable  suspicion  of  fraud  exists,  apply  to  the  direc- 
tor of  the  experiment  station  for  information  concerning 
the  goods  offered  for  sale  or  the  firm  placing  them  on  the 
market. 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS.  137 


TRADE  VALUES  OF  FERTILIZIXG    INGREDIENTS 
IN  RAW  3IATERIALS  AND  CHEMICALS,  1899. 

Adopted  by  Eastern  Experiment  Stations  for  estimating  the  value  of 
mixed  commercial  fertilizers. 

-T.  Cents 

Nitrogen—  per  lb. 

in  ammonia  salts 15 

in  nitrates I2| 

Organic  nitrogen — 

in  dry  and  fine-ground  fish,  meat,  blood,  and  in  high- 
grade  mixed  fertilizers 14 

in  cotton-seed  meal,  linseed  meal,  and  castor  pomace  12 

in  fine-ground  bone  and  tankage 14 

in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 10 

Phosphoric  acid — 

soluble  in  water 4^ 

soluble  in  ammonium-citrate  solution 4 

in  dry  fine-ground  fish,  bone,  and  tankage 4 

in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 2 

in  cotton-seed  meal,  linseed  meal,  castor  pomace,  and 

wood  ashes 4 

insoluble   (in  ammonium-citrate   solution),  in  mixed 

fertilizers 2 

Potash    as    high-grade  sulfate,  and   in   mixtures   free 

from  muriate 5 

as  muriate 4| 

The  manurial  constituents  contained  in  feeding  stuffs  are 
valued  as  follows  : 

Organic  nitrogen 12 

Phosphoric  acid 4 

Potash 4| 


13g 


Agkiculture. 


convehsion  table  for  calculating  fer. 
tilizing  ingredients. 


Amount  of 


Nitrogen  

Ammonia 

(I 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Sulfate  of  ammonia     

Potash  (anhydrous) 

Sulfate  of  potash 

Muriate  of  potash 

Phosphoric  acid  (anhydrous), 

Mono-calcium  phosphate  ... 

Di-calcium  phosphate 

Tri-calcium  phosphate 

Lime  (calcium  oxid) 

Chlorin 


Multiplied 
by 

Gives  Corresponding  Amount 
of 

1.2T4 

6.07 

Ammonia. 
Nitrate  of  soda. 

.824 

3-882 

Nitrogen. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia. 

3-147 
3.706 
5-0 

Chlorid  of  ammonia. 
Nitric  acid. 
Nitrate  of  soda. 

.165 
.2 

Nitrogen. 
Ammonia. 

.212 
.258 

Nitrogen. 
Ammonia. 

1.85 

1-585 

•54 

.632 

Sulfate  of  potash. 
Muriate  of  potash. 
Potash. 

2.183 
1-915 
1.648 

Tri-calcium  phosphate. 
Di-calcium  phosphate. 
Mono-calcium  pliosphate. 

1-325 

1-565 
•459 

Tri-calcium  phosphate. 

Phosphoric  acid. 

1-845 
1.786 
1.648 

Tri-calcium  phosphate. 
Carbonate  of  lime. 
Sodium  chlorid. 

AGRICULTUKAL    EXGl^' EEILING.  139 


XL  AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING. 

REASONS    FOR    TILE-DRAINING    LAND. 

(Chamberlain.*) 

Land  should  be  drained,  because: 

1.  Tile  drainage  makes  all  tillage  and  harvesting  operations 
easier  and  more  rapid,  physically  and  mechanically. 

2.  Drainage  removes  both  the  excess  surface-water,  and  the 
surplus  water  in  the  soil  and  the  subsoil. 

3.  Drainage  prevents  loss  of  fertility  by  surface  wash. 

4.  Drainage  will  add  fertility  to  the  soil  with  each  rainfall. 

5.  Drainage  helps  to  warm  the  soil  as  well  as  to  dry  it,  giv- 
ing best  conditions  for  plant  growth. 

6.  Drainage  lengthens  the  season  of   tillage,  crop,   growth, 
and  harvest. 

7.  Drainage  increases  the  extent  of  root  pasturage. 

8.  Drainage  helps  to  disintegrate  the  soil  and  make  pulveri- 
zation possible. 

9.  Drainage  greatly  diminishes  the  effect  of  frost  in  heaving 
out  wheat,  clover,  etc.,  in  winter  and  spring. 

10.  Drainage  on  clayey  soils  helps  the  crops  to  resist  drought 
better. 

11.  Drainage  often,  though  not  always,  diminishes  the  sud- 
denness and  violence  of  floods. 

12.  Drainage,  both  open  and  with  tiles,  improves  the  health 
of  a  region. 

•Tile  Drainage,  by  W.  I.  Chamberlain,  Medina,  Ohio,  1891, 35  cents. 


140 


AGRICULTURE. 


NLMBER   OF   RODS    AND   OF   TILES    PER   ACRE, 

AVITH  DRAINS   AT   VARIOUS  DISTANCES 

APART.     (Scott.) 


Distance 

between 

the  Drains. 

Rods 
{Sl4  Vards) 
per  Acre. 

12-inch 
Tile. 

13-inch 
Tile. 

14-inch 
Tile. 

15-inch 
Tile. 

Feet. 

15 

176 

2904 

2680 

2489 

2323 

18 

146 

2420 

2234 

2074 

1936 

21 

125 

2074 

1915 

1778 

1659 

24 

no 

1815 

1676 

1555 

1452 

27 

97 

1613 

1480 

1383 

1290 

30 

88 

1452 

1340 

1244 

ii6r 

33 

80 

1320 

1219 

1131 

1056 

36 

72 

1210 

1117 

1037 

968 

39 

67 

1117 

1031 

957 

893 

42 

62 

1037 

958 

888 

829 

SIZE    OF    TILE    PIPES 

Required  for  Draining  under  Average  Conditions. 

(Waring.) 

The  drains  being  laid  four  feet,  or  more,  deep,  and  laid  on 
a  well-regulated  fall  of  three  inches  in  a  hundred  feet : 

For     2  acres, i^-inch  pipes 

'*      8     **    2i    •*        *• 

"    20     *'    3i     *• 

"    40     "    two  3^     ** 

'*     50      "    6       '*        ** 

•*  100     "    8       " 

These  drains  will  remove  the  water  fast  enough  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes,  even  after  heavy  storms;  if  the  pipes  are  securely- 
laid,  the  drains  will  only  be  benefited  by  the  occasional  cleaning 
they  will  receive  when  running  "more  than  full." 


AGiilCULTUIlAL    EXGIXEERING. 


la 


Table  of  Size  of  Tile  Pipe  of  Main  Drain. 

(McCoNNELL.) 


Fall. 

Acres  Drained. 

3 -inch 
Tile. 

4-inch 
Tile. 

6-inch 
Tile. 

8-inch 
Tile. 

lo-inch 
Tile. 

12-inch 
Tile. 

I  foot  in      20 

18.6 
15. 1 
12.9 
II. 9 
10.9 
10. 0 

V. 

5-7 

4.1 
3-7 

3-3 

l:t 

2.1 
1.9 

26.8 
21.8 
18.6 
17.0 
15-6 
14-5 
13-4 
12.6 
II. 9 
9-5 
8.2 

1:1 

5-9 

5-2 

4-7 
4.1 

3-7 
2.8 

74.4 
60.4 
51.6 
47-7 
43-4 
39-9 
37-2 
35-0 

11:6 

22.8 
20.4 
18.4 
16.5 
14.8 

13-3 
11.4 

10.2 

8.S 

7-4 

150.0 
128.0 
108.8 
98.0 
90.0 
83.0 
77.0 
72.5 
69.2 
56.0 
48.0 
42.4 
38.2 
32.6 
30.1 
28.0 
24.0 
21.2 
16.8 
15-0 

270.0 
220.8 
189.6 
170.4 
156.0 
144.4 
135-0 
127.0 
120.6 
97-3 
83-9 
74-4 
65.5 
60.3 
54.0 
48.6 
41.9 
37-2 
30.8 
25.0 

426.0 
346.0 

246.0 
228.1 
213.0 
200.5 
190.5 
154-4 
132.5 
117. 0 
107.0 

r.:i 

74 -o 

65.0 

56.0 

47.0 

40.8 

I  "  "    L:::::::::: 

T          *'         "                 70      

I          "         "                 80.::::;::: 

I         "         "             100          

I          "         "             200 

I         "         ''             400 

I          "         "             600::::;::::: 

I          "         "             800         

I          "         "          1500 

Rule  for  Obtaining  Size  of  Main  Pipes. — Multiply  the 
square  root  of  the  number  of  small  drains  (of  fair  average 
length)  by  the  diameter  of  small  pipes;  the  quotient  gives  the 
diameter  of  main. 

If  the  distance  apart  of  drains  in  feet  tDe  denoted  by  jF,  that 
in  links  by  L,  and  the  length  of  drains  in  chains  per  acre  by  C, 
then 

^      660         1000 

Number  of  12-incli  Pipes  Required  per  Acre  at 
Different  Distances  between  the  Drains: 


Distance. 
Feet. 

12 

15 
18 
21 
27 


Number. 

Distance. 
Feet. 

Numbe 

3630 

33 

1320 

2904 

40 

1089 

2420 

50 

871 

2073 

60 

726 

1613 

143 


AGRICULTURE. 


NU3IBER  OF  ACRES  AVHICH  A  TILE  OF  A  GIVEN 
DIAMETER  AND  PER  CENT  GRADE  WILL 
DRAIN   WHEN  USED  AS  AN  OUTLET.     (Elliott.) 

Table  1.  — Discharge  of  Tile  from  4  to  20  inches  in 
Diameter  on  a  Grade  of  1  foot  per  100  feet. 


Diameter  of 
Tile,  Inches. 

Discharge  in 
Cubic  Feet 
per  Second. 

Diameter  of 
Tile,  Inches. 

Dischargre  in 
Cubic  Feet 
per  Second. 

4 
6 
8 
9 

lO 

o.i6 
0,49 
I. II 
1-53 
2.05 

12 
15 

18 
20 

3-40 
6.29 

10.37 
13-85 

Table  2. — Grades  per  100  feet,  and  their  Square  Roots. 


Grade  per 
100  Feet 

Grade  in 
Inches 
(approx- 
imated). 

Square 

Root  of 

Grade  per 
100  Feet 

Grade  in 
Inches 
(approx- 
imated). 

Square 
Root  of 

in  Feet. 

Grade. 

in  Feet. 

Grade. 

0.04 

M 

0.200 

0.40 

aH 

0.633 

•05 

.224 

45 

sVa 

.671 

.06 

% 

■245 

50 

6 

.707 

,08 

% 

.283 

55 

6% 

.742 

.09 

I 

.300 

60 

'M 

.775 

.10 

iV^ 

.316 

6S 

.806 

.12 

iM 

•346 

70 

8% 

.837 

.14 

•374 

75 

9 

.866 

.16 

2 

.400 

80 

9% 

.894 

.18 

2S 

,424 

85 

io»4 

.922 

.20 

.447 

90 

10% 

•949 

.25 

3 

.500 

95 

ii34 

■975 

•30 

.548 

I 

00 

12 

I. coo 

.35 

.592 

To  determine  the  number  of  acres  that  a  tile  main  of 
given  size  and  grade  will  drain,  multiply  the  discharge  of 
the  tiles,  according  to  size  (see  Table  i),  by  the  square  root 
of  the  grade  upon  which  it  is  proposed  to  lay  the  main 
(Table  2).  When  it  is  desired  that  the  main  shall  carry  i 
inch  in  depth  per  acre  in  twenty-four  hours,  multiply  this 
result  by  24  ;  if  one-half  inch,  multiply  by  48  ;  if  one-fourth 
inch,  multiply  by  96.     (Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  40.) 


AGRICULTURAL   EXGIXEERING. 


143 


RISE   OF   THE   SLOPE   FOR    100  FEET.    (Waring.) 

Table   I.   gives  the    rise   of  the  slope   for   loo  feet  of  the  horizontal 
measurement. 
Table  IL,  the  rise  of  the  slope  for  loo  feet  of  its  own  length. 


Table  No.  I. 

Table  No.  H. 

Deg. 

Feet. 
8.749 

Deg. 

Feet. 

Deg. 

Feet. 

Deg. 

Feet. 

5 

50 

"9-175 

5 

8.716 

50 

76.604 

lO 

17-633 

55 

142.815 

10 

17-365 

55 

81.915 

15 

26.795 

60 

173-205 

15 

25.882 

60 

86.602 

20 

36.. 397 

65 

214.451 

20 

34.202 

t.5 

90.631 

25 

46.631 

70 

274.748 

25 

42.262 

70 

93.969 

3^ 

57-735 

75 

373-205 

30 

50 

75 

96.593 

35 

70.021 

80 

567.128 

35 

57358 

80 

98.481 

40 

83.910 

«5 

1143.010 

40 

64.279 

85 

99.619 

45 

100 

45 

70.711 

ICjtrawpie.—U  the  horizontal  measurement  is  100  feet,  and  the  slope  is  at 
an  angle  of  10°,  the  rise  will  be  17.633  feet. 
If  the  sloping  line  (at  an  angle  of  15°)  is  100  feet,  it  rises  25.882  feet. 


QUANTITY   OF  EARTH    RE3IOVED    PER  ROD   OF 
DRAINS    OF  VARIOUS  DIMENSIONS.     (Scott.) 


c" 

Mean  Width  of  Drains 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

'  °l 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

*e 

t» 

Cubic  Yards. 

Q 

2^ 

d.S9 

1.02 

1. 14 

1.27 

1.40 

1-53 

1-65 

1.78 

1. 91 

2.04 

2.16 

2.29 

3 

1.07 

1.22 

1-37 

1.53 

1.68 

1.83 

1.98 

2.14 

2.29 

2.24 

2.60 

2-75 

3H 

125 

1.42 

1.60 

1.78 

I.q6 

2.14 

2.32 

2-49 

2.67 

2.8s 

3-03 

3.21 

4 

1.42 

1.03 

1.83 

2.04 

2.24 

2-44 

2.65 

2.85 

3  05 

3-26 

346 

3-66 

5 

1. 78 

2.03 

2.29 

2.54 

2.80 

3-05 

3-31 

3-5t> 

3-82 

4.07 

4-33 

4-58 

*'  If  a  4-ft.  drain  be  cut  14  in.  wide  at  top  and  4  in.  at  bot- 
tom, the  mean  width  will  be  g  in.,  and  the  quantity  of  earth 
excavated  in  cutting-  each  rod  will  b?   1.83  cubic  yards  ;  if 


144 


AGRICULTURE. 


the  same  drain  be  cut  i8  ir^-  at  top  and  8  in.  at  bottom,  tne- 
mean  width  will  be  13  in.,  ana  2.65  cubic  yards  of  eartji 
will  have  to  be  removed  in  cutting  each  rod  :  so  that  if  tne 
digging  of  the  drain  costs  6  cents  per  cubic  yard  of  earth 
moved  the  narrow  drain  will  cost  11  cents  per  rod,  and  the 
other  nearly  16  cents  per  rod,  showing  the  cost  to  be  one 
half  larger,  quite  unnecessarily. 

"  The  same  table  will  be  found  useful  in  helping  to  fix  the 
relative  prices  of  deep  and  shallow  drains  ;  but  it  must  be 
recollected  that  the  deeper  drains  will  be  increased  in  cost 
not  only  by  reason  of  the  greater  quantity  of  earth  which 
has  to  be  moved,  but  also  because  of  the  increased  labor  of 
lifting  the  earth  to  the  surface  from  a  greater  depth." 


KAINFALiLi.     (McConnell.) 


Inches 

Cubic  Feet 

Imperial  Gallons. 

Tons 

of  Depth. 

per  Acre. 

per  Acre. 

per  Acr« 

I 

3.630 

22,635 

lOI.I 

2 

7,260 

45,270 

202.2 

3 

10,890 

67,905 

303.3 

4 

14,520 

90.539 

404.4 

5 

18,150 

113,174 

505.5 

6 

21,780 

135,809 

606.6 

7 

25.410 

158,444 

707.7 

8 

29,040 

181,072 

808.8 

9 

32,670 

203,714 

909.9 

10 

36,300 

226,349 

lOII.O 

II 

39,930 

248,984 

III2.I 

Z2 

43.560 

271,619 

I213.2 

AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING. 


145 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  FORCE  AND  VELOCITY 
OF  WIND.  (Waring.) 


Miles 
per  Hour. 

Feet 
per  Minute. 

Lbs.  Press- 
ure on 
I  sq.  ft. 

Description. 

I 

88 

.005 

Barely  observable. 

2 

3 

176 
264 

.020  t 
•04s 

Just  perceptible. 

4 

352 

.080 

Light  breeze. 

1 

528 

.125 
.i8oV 

Gentle,  pleasant  wind 

8 

rj^ 

.320 

lO 

880 

.500  , 

1. 125  s 

Brisk  blow. 

15 

1320 

20 

25 

1760 
2200 

2.0CX> 

3-125  f 

Very  brisk. 

30 

35 

2640 
3080 

4.500  J 
6,125 ) 

High  wind. 

40 
45 

3520 
3960 

8.000 1 
10.125 ) 

Very  high. 

50 

4400 

12,500 

Storm. 

60 

5280 

18.000 

Great  storm. 

80 

7040 

32.000 

Hurricane. 

100 

8800 

50.000- 

Tornado,  uprooting  trees,  sweeping 
off  buildings,  etc. 

NUMBER  OP  SQUARE  FEET  AND  ACRES  THAT  A 

First-class  Windmill   can   Irrigate    One  Inch  in  8 
Hours,  Raising  the  W^ater  lO,  15  or  35  Feet. 

(A.  R.  Wolff,) 


10  Feet. 

15  Feet. 

25  Feet. 

Size  of  Windmill. 

Sq.  Ft. 

Acres 

Sq.  Ft. 

Acres 

Sq.  Ft. 

Acres 

Sift.  diam.  of  wheel.. 

",736.34 

.269 

7,824.74 

.180 

4,744-74 

.109 

10    "        " 

'     .. 

37,161.74 

.85^ 

24,774-75 

.569 

14,767.83 

-339 

12    "        " 

'        "    .. 

66,765.16 

1-533 

44.509.85 

1.022 

26,134.57 

.600 

14    "        '• 

'        "    .. 

85,982.05 

1.974 

57,321.11 

1.316 

34,757-03 

.798 

16    "        " 

'        "    .. 

120,106.14 

2.757 

80,070.76 

1.838 

49,742.00 

1.142 

18    '• 

192,446.10 

4.418 

123,164.58 

2.827 

75,215-14 

1.727 

20    "        " 

238.395-08 

5-473 

158,930.31 

3-649 

96,211.50 

2.209 

25    "        •' 

'        "    .. 

410,038,09 

9-413 

273,359-24 

6.275 

163,53337 

3-75' 

30  •■       ••    •■  .. 

831,686.24 

19.093 

561,197.56 

12.883 

331,752-96 

7.616 

146 


AGRICULTURE. 


4)  •»-    G 


I   4J   (U    ^   4)  • 


>  S 


ooooooooooocoooo 


[I. 
.J 
o 

Equivalent 
Actual  Use- 
ful Horse- 
power 
Developed. 

c 

^ss'SiivS'?.;?; 

2" 

c 
o 

3 

C 

11 

"rt  rt 

! 

o 

(A 

o 

1 

00  m  w  00  M 

o  0  cj  o^  r- 

Tj-CO    N    ir>VD 

i 

•gcg^'^i^ 

^ 

•  lO  t^  o  t-o  t^ 

1 

O   "  VO    0    MOO   >/l 

»r>  lA  -"f   lO  CJ    Tf  f) 

in 

Tj.    W     M  VO     ■4-    "     O 

w    M    M    N    ro  ■* 

H 

ID 

HSsSIl 

VO   t^  ir>  o-  «   0   >- 

M      M      M      fO    ■«•    t^ 

o 

VO   vovo    lAvO   invo 
inO\  U1VO    HI   t^  o 

"^^^^^^"l 

;«5 

0 

if 

VO 

?i;?IIH 

O  (^  lO  ^  t^  ^  f) 

X 

1 

s 

0 

>0  VO  ir>  to  -^  ■*  ro 

vSSa^^^^ 

>> 

\OVOVO\0\OVO\OVO 

a 
.2 

&^5 

f 

00 

0    N    ■'l-VOOO    O    M> 

H     H     M     M     M      N     Ct 

-==s>>^g 


AGlLICULTUltAL    E^  GIIn  ELUI^S  G. 


Expense 

per 
Horse- 
power, in 
cents 
per 
hour. 

q  00  oieo  o»M>  in  m 

H 

1 

1 

h 

l! 

Si 

t;.s 
< 

o 

1 

5 
0 

0  0  N  ro  fO  m\o  vo 
\D    tvco  VD   -"t-OO   ir,  N 

'    M    N    N    CO  ■* 

l§ 

o°"°°oq22 

^.^^^^.^.^-s 

For  Repairs 
and  Depre- 
ciation (5^  of 
first  cost 

per 
annum). 

'    M     W    M     cJ 

For  Interest  on 
First  Cost  (first 
cost  including 
cost  of  wind- 
mill, pump,  and 
tower)  at  5%  per 
annum. 

'    H    M    M     N 

Average 

Number  of 

Hours 

Day 

During 

which  this 

Quantity 

will  be 

Raised. 

OOCOOOCOOOOOOOOO 

Equiva- 
lent 
Actual'Use- 
ful 
Horse- 
power 
Developed. 

q   «   N   N   ^t^O   t>.  r^ 

Gallons 

of 

Water 

Raised 

25  Feet  per 

Hour. 

fo  «    q.  t^OO  CO^  ^  «>; 

M  cT  cT  fo  in  tC  N 

Soog 
1 

4^5   3    i   3   S   2   3 
00   0   «   'i-vO  CO   0   10 

-aH>>>gH 

148 


AGRICULTURE. 


NOMINAL  HORSE-POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  THE 
DISCHARGE  OF  GIVEN  QUANTITIES  OF  WATER 
WITH  LIFTS  OF   10  AND  20  FEET.      (Scott.) 


Diameter  of  Pipe, 
Inches. 

Gallons 

Nominal  HP. 

Nominal  H.P. 

Discharg^ed  per 

required  for  a 

required  for  a 

Minute. 

ID-foot  Lift. 

20-foot  Lift. 

3 

ICO 

I 

3 

4 

200 

i^ 

3 

s 

350 

2 

4 

6 

500 

2^ 

5 

I 

759 

3 

6 

8 

1000 

4 

8 

lO 

1500 

6 

10 

12 

2300 

8 

14 

14 

2800 

10 

16 

15 

3300 

12 

20 

i8 

6000 

20 

35 

IRRIGATION.     (Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


A  water  right  is  the  right  or  privilege  of  using  water  for 
irrigating  purposes,  either  in  a  definite  quantity  or  upon  a 
prescribed  area  of  land,  such  right  or  privilege  being  cus- 
tomarily acquired  either  by  priority  of  use  or  by  purchase. 
In  many  parts  of  the  arid  region  a  water  right  is  an  exceed- 
ingly valuable  property.  The  average  value  of  the  water 
rights  of  the  entire  arid  region,  as  determined  by  the  cen- 
sus of  1890,  was  $26  per  acre,  and  there  are  fruit-growing 
districts  in  California  where  water  rights  have  been  sold  at 
as  high  as  $1500  per  miner's  inch,  or  from  |ioo  to 
$500  per  acre,  according  to  the  amount  used  on  any  given 
area  of  land. 

The  duty  of  tvater  is  the  extent  of  the  service  it  will  per- 
form when  used  for  irrigating  purposes,  that  is,  the  num- 
ber of  acres  a  given  quantity  of  water  will  adequately  irri- 
gate under  ordinary  circumstances.  This  is  usually  from 
100  to  200  acres  for  each  second-foot.  Where  water  is 
abundant  the  duty  has  been  known  to  be  as  low  as  50 
acres,  and  where  very  scarce  as  high  as  500  acres,  to  the 
second-foot. 


AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING.  149 

A  initier's  inch  is  theoretically  such  a  quantity  of  water  as 
will  flow  through  an  aperture  i  inch  square  in  a  board  2 
inches  thick  under  a  head  of  water  of  6  inches  in  one  sec- 
ond of  time,  and  it  is  equal  to  0.194  gallon,  or  0.C259337 
cubic  foot,  per  second,  or  to  11.64  gal.,  or  i.556o24cubic  ft., 
per  minute.  The  amount  of  water  flowing  through  a  given 
aperture  in  a  given  time  varies,  however,  with  the  head  of 
water  over  the  opening,  and  also  with  the  form  of  the 
opening.  In  Colorado  the  miner's  inch  legalized  by  statute 
equals  11. 7  gal.  per  min.  The  California  miner's  inch,  how- 
ever, equals  only  9  gal.  per  min.,  100  Colorado  inches  being, 
accordingly,  equal  to  130  California  inches.  One  hundred 
Colorado  inches  will  cover  an  acre  to  a  depth  of  5.2  ft.  in 
24  hours  ;  100  California  inches  will  cover  the  same  area 
only  to  a  depth  of  4  ft.  in  the  same  time.  Fifty  California 
inches  are,  therefore,  approximately  equal  to  i  second- 
foot,  and  50  Colorado  inches  equal  to  about  three  tenths 
more. 

An  acre-foot  of  water  is  the  amount  required  to  cover  an 
acre  of  ground  to  a  depth  of  i  foot.  This  is  43,560  cubic 
feet,  or  325,851.45  gal.  Its  weight  is  1213  tons  2113  pounds, 
at  2240  pounds  to  the  ton. 

The  amount  of  water  required  to  cover  an  acre  of  ground 
to  a  depth  of  i  inch  is  3630  cubic  feet,  or  27,154.29  gal.  Its 
weight  is  loi  tons  362I  pounds,  at  2240  pounds  to  the 
ton. 

A  second-foot  is  the  most  satisfactory  because  the  most 
definite  unit  of  measurement  for  flowing  water.  It  is  used 
by  the  U.  S.  Government  in  the  gauging  of  rivers  and 
streams,  and  is  rapidly  superseding  the  miner's  inch  in  the 
measurement  o£  water  for  irrigation.  It  is  the  quantity  rep- 
resented by  a  stream  i  foot  wide  and  i  foot  deep  flowing 
at  the  average  rate  of  i  foot  per  second.  In  other  words, 
it  is  I  cub.  ft.  per  second,  60  cub.  ft.  per  min.,  3600  cub. 
ft.  per  hour,  etc.  A  stream  flowing  continuously  at  the 
average  rate  of  i  second-foot  would  carry  in  one  day  of  24 
liours  86,400  cub.  ft.,  or  646,316.9  gal.,  sufficient  to  cover 
iflf  acres  to  a  depth  of  i  ft.  Flowing  continuously  for  one 
year  of  365  days,  such  a  stream  would  carry  31,536,000  cub. 


150  AGRICULTURE. 

ft.,  or  235,905,678.7  gal.,  sufficient  to  cover  723f|f  acres  tea 
depth  of  I  ft. 

The  siib-hiitnid  region  is  the  strip  of  country  running 
north  and  south  between  the  arid  region,  where  irrigation 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  successful  prosecution  of 
agriculture,  and  those  portions  of  the  United  States  in 
which  the  rainfall  is  usually  sufficient  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. It  includes  portions  of  North  Dakota,  South  Da- 
kota, Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Texas,  and  may  be  described 
as  a  region  where  irrigation  is  not  always  necessary,  but 
where  agricultural  operations  cannot,  with  any  assurance 
of  success,  be  undertaken  without  it. 

The  average  value  of  the  u'7'igated  land  in  farms  in  the 
United  States  was  ascertained  by  the  census  of  1890  to  be 
$83.28  per  acre,  and  that  of  the  non-irrigated  land  in  farms 
$20.95  per  acre. 

The  average  annual  value  of  the  agricultural  products  of 
the  irrigated  land  was  ascertained  to  be  $14.89  per  acre  irri- 
gated, and  that  of  those  of  the  non-irrigated  land  $6.80  for 
each  acre  improved. 

The  average  first  cost  of  the  irrigated  land,  including 
purchase  money,  water  rights,  etc.,  was  ascertained  to 
have  been  $8.15  per  acre,  and  the  average  annual  cost  of 
the  water  supply  $1.07  per  acre. 

The  total  value  of  the  irrigated  farms  of  the  United 
States,  as  reported  by  the  farmers  themselves,  was,  in  round 
figures,  $296,850,000,  an  increase  of  $219,360,000,  or  283  per 
cent,  upon  their  cost,  including  land,  water  right,  fences, 
and  preparation  for  cultivation. 

The  total  value  of  the  productive  irrigating  systems  was 
found  to  be  $94,412,000,  an  increase  of  $64,801,000,  or  219 
per  cent,  upon  their  cost. 


AGRICULTURAL    ENCxINEERING. 


151 


CARRYING  CAPACITY   OF   PIPES,  GALLONS   PER 
3IINUTE.      (Wilcox.) 


—  . 

_  . 

=  «• 

^  . 

„  . 

_^. 

-^ 

—  J 

rt"*-! 

n!  "■ 

OJV^ 

rt  "*^ 

Size  of 

U.0 

IX.0 

t,0 

^R 

U.O 

^R 

t.0 

fr.R 

Pipe. 

0  ;, 

JS   " 
"  u 

X3  " 

"w  u 

oZ 

oC 

^  N 

•^?^, 

C  4; 

-  "J 

7  a 

•T  a 

T  a 

■T  a. 

"r  a 

"^  a 

'^*  a 

\o 

N 

3  inch. 

13 

^2 

23 

1^ 

40 

46 

64 

Z^ 

4  " 

27 

33 

47 

66 

81 

93 

131 

163 

6  *' 

75 

105 

129 

183 

224 

258 

364 

450 

8  " 

153 

216 

265 

375 

460 

527 

750 

923 

9  *! 

205 

2QO 

355 

503 

617 

712 

i,oo5 

1,240 

lO   " 

267 

378 

463 

65s 

803 

926 

1,310 

1,613 

12   " 

422 

596 

730 

1,0^3 

1,273 

1,468 

2,076 

2.554 

15  " 

740 

1, 021 

1,282 

1. 818 

2,224 

2,404 

3,617 

4.467 

i8  ♦' 

1,168 

1,651 

2,022 

2,860 

3,508 

4,045 

5.704 

7,047 

24   " 

2,3Q6 

3.387 

4.155 

5.874 

7,202 

8,303 

",744 

14,466 

30  " 

4,187 

5-920 

7,252 

10.557 

12,580 

14,504 

20,516 

25,277 

FLOW  OF   WATER  THROUGH  STRAIGHT  PIPES 

(Collet.) 
Flowing  Full,  in  Gallons  per  Minute. 


.ESS 

Head  of  Water  Divided  by  Length  of  Pipe. 

¥ 

T^ 

A 

.V 

1 

1^0 

T% 

^ 

T% 

i 

t 

.024 
.056 

nofi 

,0,46 

06 

:Zl 

086 

075 

089 

.124 

.18 

t 

.14 
•31 

-^6 

.34 
.72 

.44 
.92 

•50 
1.04 





44 

52 

* 

.22 

•33 

•5 

•83 

I 

2 

I 

S 

2.0 

2.6 

2.9 

i 

.46 

.70 

I.O 

1.8 

2 

5 

3 

I 

4.1 

5-3 

6.0 

i 

1-33 

1.98 

2.9 

4.9 

7 

T 

8 

9 

II. 7 

15 

16.9 

I 

2.79 

4-15 

6.1 

10 

14 

8 

18 

4 

24 

3^ 

35 

ij 

4.96 

7.36 

10.8 

r8 

26 

32 

42 

54 

61 

li 

7-93 

11.75 

17.2 

28 

41 

51 

67 

86 

97 

li 

II. 7 

17.4 

25-5 

42 

61 

76 

100 

128 

144 

2 

16.6 

24 

36 

59 

86 

106 

140 

179 

202 

2| 

29 

4.3 

63 

104 

151 

188 

246 

315 

354 

3 

46 

6q 

101 

166 

240 

298 

390 

500 

562 

4 

q8 

144 

210 

344 

498 

617 

808 

1033 

1162 

5 

173 

254 

370 

606 

876 

1085 

1419 

1815 

2040 

6 

227 

404 

589 

959 

T389 

1720 

2248 

2876 

3230 

If  the  diameter  be  doubled,  nearly  5.8  times  the  quantity  can  be  passed. 


152 


AGRICULTURE. 


POWKK    REQUIRED    TO    RAISE     WATER     PROM 
DEEP  WELLS  BY  PUMPING.       (Appleby.) 


Gallons  of  water  raised  per  hour |  200 

350 

500 

650 

800 

1000 

Height  of  lift  for  one  man,  in  feet. . . 

"        "     "     "      "   donkey,  in  feet 

"        "    "     "      "   horse,        " 

"        "     "     "       "   H.P.    steam,  ( 

in  feet           f 

00 
180 
630 
990 

51 
102 

357 

561 

36 

72 

252 

396 

28 
56 
196 

308 

22 

45 

154 

242 

18 

126 
198 

APPROXIMATE  COST    OF  DIFFERENT    KINDS   OF 
PIPE   USED  FOR    IRRIGATION.      (Wilcox.) 


c 

0.0 

g.9-^ 

U                  i 

S^ffl 

Et-a: 

►^^CQ 

=2: 3 

•s.^ 

c 
<u 

11 

Q 

to     "Z 

^v5d 
m     "Z. 

-  i£  w 

0 

0         a 

6 

$0.32 

$0.41 

$052 

$o.72i 

$o.i6J     .    . 

....  $0 

12 

8 

.42 

51 

62 

i.o4i 

22 

20 

10 

•53 

60 

«5 

1.42 

33       ••• 

26 

12 

.63 

68 

Q» 

1.84 

4^i     ■^• 

32 

T4 

.69 

75 

17 

2.30 

55        $0 

74 

38 

16 

.82 

93 

25 

2.83 

68f 

94 

45 

18 

.91 

I 

00 

43 

3-37 

824         I 

08 

53 

20 

1 .00 

I 

M 

63 

3-97 

96i        I 

22 

60 

22 

1.05 

I 

30 

«,5 

4.62 

I 

21          1 

32 

68 

^6 

5-33 

^7i               I 

40 

Ro 

"■ 

^,.   , 

AVERAGE    COST    PER    MILE    OF    CONSTRUCTING 
IRRIGATING  CANALS  AND  DITCHES. 

(Eleventh  U.  S.  Census.) 


States  and  Territories. 


General  average 

Arizona  

California. 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Montana.. . .    

Nevada 

New  Mexico 

Oregon  

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming 

Sub-humid  region... 


Under  5  Feet 
in  Width. 


$481 


$471 
885 
380 
205 

325 
200 
3T0 
260 
493 
285 


5  to  10  Feet 
in  Width. 


$1,628 


$1,674 

5^957 

1. 131 

8to 

800 

1,150 

581 

1,060 

1,025 

I,2:?6 

837 

447 


10  Feet  and 
Over  in 

Width. 


.603 


$5,274 

15,5" 

5,258 

1,320 

2,300 

'  6.666 
1,300 
3,072 
2.571 

3.884 
1,884 


AGRICULTURAL   EXGIXEER1N"G. 


153 


CAPACITIES    OF    AVINDMILLS   AND    PUMPS. 

(Irrigation  Age.) 

Sizes  of  Irrigation  Mills  and  Pumps  best  Adapted  for 
each  other  to  Work  Successfully  under  Ordinary 
Conditions. 


a 

a 

Ti 

6 

j^ 

■<j- 

•*-  „• 

o 

Si 

ic 

i 

<*-  s 

^S  . 

"o^ 

o.S 

-^o 

•^.§ 

II 

o 
a 

5^ 

C   Wis 

IP 

c^*. 

3^-a 

g^?^ 

>Q 

C/5 

Q 

Q 

<; 

< 

< 

<<: 

(A 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.  and 
under. 

In. 

Gals. 

Gals. 

Gals. 

Acres. 

Feet. 

io-/oot  Mills. 


3,66o  I  87,840 
2,580  61,920 
1,320   I    31,680 


12-foot  Mills. 


10 

30 

12 

4^ 

7>Soo 

180,000 

103 

8 

50 

12 

3i 

6,300 

151,200 

86 

6 

75 

12 

ij 

2,700 

64,800 

37 

4 

125 

12 

f 

1,320 

31,680 

18 

90X75 
90X60 

60X40 
50X30 


14-foot  Mills. 


12 

30 

63 

10,620 

254. 8S0 

146 

125X80 

10 

50 

43 

7,260 

174.240 

100 

90X75 

8 

75 

2f 

4.620 

roo,88o 

63 

75X50 

6 

125 

I| 

2,040 

71,560 

40 

65X40 

4 

175 

I 

1,680 

40,320 

23 

50X30 

*  Amount  of  land  that  can  be  covered  i  ft.  deep  with  windmills  work- 
ing  at  the  rate  of  15  hours  per  day  for  300  days  in  the  year.  Acres  cov- 
ered 1  ft.  deep. 

t  Capable  of  holding  water  for  24  liours"  continuous  pumping.  These 
sizes  should  have  4  ft.  depth  of  water,  height  of  bank  5  ft,,  width  of  base 
16  ft.,  2  ft.  of  w.-itcr  below  discharge-pipe  not  included.  These  reservoirs 
to  connect  with  additional  reservoir  by  overflow-pipe  in  order  to  utilize 
full  capacity  of  mills  and  pumps.  Overflow-reservoir  should  be  of  i-  and  2- 
acre  capacity,  8  ft.  deep,  banks  9  ft.  high,  base  of  bank  45  ft,,  acre  size 
209  ft.  on  each  side,  corners  rounded;  2-acre  size  209  X  418  ft. 


154 


AGRICULTURE. 


THE    CALIFORNIA    WEIR   TABLE.     (VV.lcox  ) 


Depth. 

Miner's 
Inches. 

% 

.01 

^ 

.04 
.07 

\4, 

.12 

% 

•«7 

H 

.22 

% 

•27 

I 

•33 

ij^ 

•39 

^/4 

.46 

i^ 

•54 

1^ 

.62 

^% 

.69 

•77 
.86 

2 

•95 

2j^ 

1.04 

2^ 

1.13 
1.22 

2^^ 

1.32 

1.42 

2?^ 

1-52 

1.63 

3 

1.74 

1.86 

1.97 

3% 

2.08 

3^ 

2.19 

1% 

2.31 

3M 

2.43 

Depth. 


3;& 
4 

^.^ 

4'>8 
4^^ 
4% 
4M 
4^ 

5-M 

5% 
6 

6^ 
6!4 

6^ 

6H 

6^ 

7 

7^ 

74 

7% 

7^ 


Miner\s 

Depth. 

i 

Miner's 

Inches. 

Inches.' 

1 

2.56     ' 

7H 

1 
7-04   , 

2. eg     1 

7^ 

7.22   j 

2.8X 

7% 

7.40  ! 

2.93     : 

8 

7^58  1 

3^«7     1 

SVs 

7-76 

319 

8!i 

7-93  ' 

3^33     1 

&% 

8.12   1 

3-47 

m 

8-30  I 

3.61     i 

8.48 

3-75     i 

8H 

8.67 

3-89     . 

8-^ 

8.86 

4.03     1 

9 

9-05 ! 

4.18 

9-23 

4.32 

9^ 

9-42   : 

4-47 

9% 

9.62 

4.62 

qI^ 

9.81  : 

a. 77 

9% 

10.00  1 

4.92     ■ 

tx 

10. 19    : 

5.08     1 

10.39    ■■ 

5-24     1 

'°w 

10.59    1 

5-39     1 

io}4 

ro  99    1 

5.54     ' 

1014 

1 1  .  ^0 

5-71      , 

Jo-)^ 

11.80 

5.87 

11 

12.22    i 

6.04 

1 1 '4 

12.65 

6.20 

13.06 

6.37 

-M 

I3-50 

6.:;? 

12 

13. q4 

6.70 

12^ 

14-38   ! 

6.87 

12l^ 

14.82 

Depth. 

Miner's 
Inches. 

12% 

15-27 

13 

15-72 

13^ 

16.18 

16.64 

13% 

17.10 

14 

17-57 

14H 

18.04 

i4>^ 

18.52 

14% 

19.00 

15 

19.48 

1554 

19.98 

^5^ 

20.47 

15% 

20.97 

16 

21.47 

16^ 

22-47 

17 

23  50 

17^ 

•^4-54 

18 

2S.58 

18^ 

26.65 

19 

27.74 

igi/^ 

28.83 

20 

29-95 

2oV^ 

31.07 

21 

32.21 

2'^ 

33-36 

22 

34-52 

221^ 

35-70 

23 

30    QO 

23^ 

38.10 

24 

39-32 

CAPACITY  OF  CISTERNS  AND  TANKS, 

in   Gallons,  for  Each   Twelve  Inches  in  Depth. 

(A.  R.  Wolff.) 


Diameter  in 

Gallons. 

Diameter  in 

Gallons. 

Diameter  in 

Gallons. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

I.O 

5-87 

6-5 

248.23 

II. 0 

710.90 

2.0 

23-50 

7.0 

287.88 

11. 0 

777-05 

2.5 

36.72 

7-5 

330.48 

12.0 

846.03 

3.0 

52-88 

8.0 

376.00 

13.0 

992.91 

3-5 

71.97 

8.5 

424.48 

14.0 

1151-54 

4.0 

9^2° 

9.0 

475.89 

15.0 

1321.92 

4-5 

118.87 

9-5 

530-24 

20.0 

2350.08 

5-0 

146.88 

10. 0 

587.52 

25-0 

3672.00 

5-5 

177.72 

10.5 

647-74 

30.0 

5287.68 

6.0 

211. 51 

AGRICULTrRAL   ENGINEERllTa 


155 


Capacity  of  Cisterns  in  Barrels,  Per  Foot  in  Depth. 

(Hall.) 


Square  Cistern. 


Barrels. 

5  feet  by  5  feet  holds 5.92 

*;     8.54 

"     11.63 

"     15.19 

"     1939 

23-74 


Circular  Cistern. 


5  feet  in  diameter  holds. 

6  "    " 

7  "    "  "  " 

8  '•     "  "  " 

10    '•     "  "  " 


Barrels. 

...  4.66 
...  8.54 
...  11.63 
...  15-19 
...  19.39 
...  23.74 


ROAD-MAKING.     (Campbell.) 

Drainage. — Perfect  drainage,  first  of  the  foundation  of 
the  roadbed,  secondly  of  the  road  surface,  are  the  points 
in  road-making  on  which  too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid. 

The  first  is  accomplished  by  underdrainage,  tile  drains 
being  laid  at  a  depth  of  three  or  more  feet  below  the  sur- 
face on  each  side  of  the  roadbed  at  the  foot  of  the  grade 
and  parallel  to  it.  Care  should  be  taken  to  fit  and  settle 
the  tile  in  the  trench  so  that,  when  refilling  with  earth, 
they  will  not  be  displaced.  As  a  rule  2|-  to  4-in.  tile  will 
be  sufficient.  The  joints  should  be  close,  and  the  grade 
a  true  line.  Loose  joints  and  an  uneven  grade  allow  silt  to 
pass  into  the  tile  and  remain  there,  destroying  the  drain. 

Surface  drainage  is  accomplished  by  open  drains  on  each 
side  of  the  grade,  having  sufficient  capacity  to  drain,  both 
the  roadbed  and  the  land  adjoining.  With  open  drains  and 
with  tile  drains  make  and  maintain  a  free  outlet  to  the 
nearest  watercourse.     A  drain  without  an  outlet  is  useless. 

Crowning  the  Road. — The  graded  portion  of  the  road 
should  be  wide  enough  to  accommodate  the  travel  upon  it, 
and  not  greater,  the  slope  being  uniform,  not  heaped  in 
the  centre.  The  crown  should  be  well  above  the  overflow 
of  storm  water,  and  should  have  a  grade  sufficient  to  shed 
water  readily  to  the  open  ditches  on  either  side.  Do  not 
round  it  up  so  as  to  make  the  grade  steep  and  dangerous, 
under  the  mistaken  impression  that  better  drainage  will 
thereby  be  secured.  Nor  should  it  be  so  low  as  to  allow 
water  to  stand  upon  it  in  depressions.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances  one  inch  or  one  inch  and  a  half  to  the  foot  is 


156  AGRICULTURE. 

a  proper  grade;  that  is,  a  roadbed  twenty-six  feet  wide 
should  be  from  thirteen  to  twenty  inches  higher  at  the 
center  than  at  the  side. 

Quality  of  Gravel. — The  gravel  should  preferably  be 
sharp,  clean,  and  of  uniform  size.  Pit  gravel  usually  con- 
tains too  much  earthy  matter,  and  where  the  latter  is  in 
excess,  the  gravel,  as  a  road-making  material,  is  useless. 
Lake  gravel  is  apt  to  be  rounded,  water-worn,  and  lacking 
in  the  necessary  earthy  matter  to  make  a  solid  and  compact 
surface,  but  is  generally  a  better  road  material  than  pit 
gravel.  A  coating  of  pit  gravel  with  a  surfacing  of  creek 
gravel  is  a  good  combination.  All  large  stones  should  be 
removed,  as  they  will  work  to  the  surface,  and  will  then 
roll  loosely  or  form  rough  protuberances. 

Placing  the  Gravel. — The  gravel  should  be  spread  evenly 
over  the  surface  of  the  sub-grade  to  a  depth  of  six  or  eight 
inches,  and  to  the  required  width,  then  rolled  with  a  heavy 
roller.  Rolling  should  be  performed  in  showery  weather, 
as  it  is  impossible  to  consolidate  dry  earth  or  gravel.  The 
heavier  the  roller  the  better  will  be  the  results,  but  if  a 
heavy  roller  cannot  be  obtained,  a  light  roller  is  much  bet- 
ter than  none.  The  roller  should  be  passed  over  the  sur- 
face until  the  gravel  or  earth  is  so  compact  as  not  to  be 
displaced  and  rutted  by  the  wheels  of  a  wagon  passing 
over  it  with  an  ordinary  load.  The  surface  must  be  main- 
tained smooth  and  hard,  to  shed  water  and  resist  wear. 
Every  municipality  should  have  a  roller,  but  whether  one 
can  be  obtained  or  not  the  gravel  should  not  be  left  in  a 
heap  just  as  it  falls  from  the  wagon.     Spread  it  evenly. 

Repairs. — Gravel  roads  already  constructed  will  need  re- 
pair. By  the  use  of  road  machinery,  scrape  the  surface 
and  cut  off  the  corners,  which  will  have  formed  at  the  foot  of 
the  grade  by  the  washing  down  of  dusty  material  from  the 
crown  of  the  road.  Loosen  the  surface,  particularly  that 
part  of  the  traveled  portion  and  where  the  road  is  rutted, 
with  picks,  or,  if  possible,  with  road  machinery  ;  then  apply 
a  coating  of  gravel,  and  roll  thoroughly.  It  is  of  more  im- 
portance, however,  to  see  that  the  drains  are  not  obstructed 
in  their  course  and  that  their  outlets  are  free  and  open.* 

*  See  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  Q5,  "Good  Roads  for  Farmers,"  Washing- 
ton, 1899. 


AGRICULTURAL    EKGINEERIIs^G. 


157 


IMPORTANCE  OF  GOOD  ROADS. 

It  is  estimated  that  it  costs  a  farmer  more  to  haul  a  bushel  of 
wheat  than  it  does  a  railroad  to  haul  a  ton  ;  that  our  poor  roads 
cost  the  farmer  at  least  $15.00  a  year  for  every  horse,  and  that 
good  earth  roads  would  save  more  than  half  the  cost  of  hauling, 
and  good  permanent  roads   more   than  three   quarters  of  it. 

(GiLMORB.) 

Force  Required  to  Draw  a  Load  on  Different  Kinds  of  Roads. 


Force 

Required  to 

Draw  a  Gross 

Load  of 
2240  Pounds. 

Steepest 
Grade  (rise 
per  100  ft.) 

on  which 
Vehicle  will 

not  Roll 
Back. 

Draught  on  a  Level  Com- 
pared with  that  on  Dif- 
ferent  Grades.    Rise  in 
feet  per  100  feet. 

0 

3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

Earth  road 

Gravel    "  

Macadam  road . . . 
Telford        "    ... 
Plank           "    ... 
Stone  trackway.. 

Pounds 
200 
I43i 

% 

I2i 

Feet 

6.4 
2.9 
2.0 

1.8 
•5 

1-3 
1-5 
2.0 
2.5 
2.6 
6.4 

1-7 
1.9 
3.1 
3-9 
4-3 
II. 7 

2.0 
2.4 
4.1 
5-4 
5-9 
17. 1 

2-3 

2.9 
5-1 
6.8 
7-5 

22.3 

2.7 
3.3 
6.1 
8.2 
9.1 
27-5 

TRACTIVE  FORCE  REQUIRED  FOR  CARRIAGES 

of  one  ton,  on  a  level  road.    (McConnell.) 

Force  of  Trac- 
Description  of  Road.  tion  per  Ton. 

1.  On  rails 8  lbs. 

2.  Well-made  pavement 33  ** 

3.  Macadamized  road 44  to  67  " 

4.  Turnpike,  hard  and  dry 68  " 

5.  "  dirty 88  " 

6.  Hard  compact  loam 119 

7.  Gravel 150  " 

8.  Sandy  and  gravelly 210  " 

g.  Ordinary  by-road 237  " 

ID.   Turnpike,  newly-gravelled 320 

II.   Loose  sandy  road 457  " 

A  horse  produces  his  greatest  mechanical  effect  in  drawing  a 
load  2\  miles  per  hour  with  a  tractive  force  of  150  lbs. 


158 


AGRICULTURE. 


FRACTIOX  OF  THE  WEIGHT  OF  A  VEHICLE 
AND  LOAD  REQUIRED  TO  MOVE  SA31E  OX  A 
LEVEL  ROAD.     iMokin.) 


Character  of  the  Vehicle. 

Character  of  the  Road. 

Is 

■si 

2-horse  Car- 
riages. 
Body  on 
Springs, 

Firm  soil,  covered  with  gravel 
4  to  6  inches  deep  . 

3^S 

1 

Firm    embankment,     covered 

with  gravel  ijto  i^inch.  deep. 

Earth    embankment,    in   very 

good  condition 

Bridge   flooring   of   thick   oak 

plank 

Broken-stone  Road  : 
In  very   good  condition,  very 

dry,  compact  and  even 

A  little  moist  or  a  little  dusty.. 
Firm,  but  with  ruts  and  mud. 
Very  bad.   ruts  4  to  4J  inches 

i 

% 

Walk. 

t 

Trot. 

i 

Walk. 

1 

Trot 
10 

Good  pavement,  dry 

"              "            covered  with 
mud 

5^8 

5^ 

^0' 

^ 

h 

TRACTIVE    POWER   OF   HORSES   AT  DIFFERENT 
SPEED.     (Trautwine.) 

The  average  traction  of  a  horse  on  a  level  and  actually 
pulling  for  ten  hours  in  the  day  may  be  assumed  as  follows: 


Miles  per  hour. 

1 
Lbs.  Traction. 

Miles  per  hour. 

Lbs.  Traction. 

i 

I 

If 

2 

333-33 

250 

200 

166.66 
142.86 
125 

2} 
2* 

2f 

I* 

4 

III. 11 

100 
90.91 
83.33 
71-43 
62.50 

If  the  horse  works  for  a  smaller  number  of  hours,  his 
traction  may  increase  as  the  hours  diminish,  down  to  about 
5  hours  per  day  and  for  speeds  of  about  from  1;^^  to  3  miles 
per  hour. 


AGRICULTUUAL    E:N  GIN  BERING.  159 

EFFECT  OF  INCLINATION  ON  TRACTIVE  FORCE. 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Rate  of 
Inclination. 

Angle  with  the 
Level. 

Tractive  Force, 
Pounds. 

Equivalent 
Length  of  Level 
Road  in  Miles. 

Level. 

0°    00'    00" 

38 

1. 00 

I  in  500 

0        6      53 

42 

1. 10 

I  in  100 

0       34      23 

58 

1.52 

I  in    80 

0       42      58 

63 

1.66 

I  in     60 

0       57       18 

71 

1.87 

I  in     50 

I       08      16 

78 

2.05 

I  in    40 

I       25      57 

88 

2.30 

I  in    30 

I       54      37 

104 

2-73. 

I  in     25 

2       17      26 

118 

3.10 

I  in    20 

2       51       21 

138 

3-63 

I  in     IS 

3       48      51 

171 

4.50 

I  in    10 

5       4^      58 

238 

6.26 

The  table  gives  the  tractive  force  necessary  to  draMr  i  ton 
over  the  best  macadam  road  of  various  grades,  and  the 
equivalent  length  of  each  mile  of  grade  in  miles  of  level 
road. 

The  effect  of  the  inclination  can  be  calculated  from  the 
following  formula: 

R  =  F^  alV, 

where  F  =  force  required  to  draw  the  load  on  the  levels 
a  =  the  grade,  expressed  by  a  fraction,  W^  the  weight  of 
the  load  in  pounds,  R  =  force  required  to  draw  the  load  up 
the  incline  in  question. 

According  to  Gillespie,  if  a  horse  can  pull  on  a  level 
1000  pounds,  on  a  rise  of 


I  foot  in 

100  feet  he  draws  900  lbs. 
50     "     •*        "         810  " 
44     "     "       "         750  " 
40     "     '*        *•         720  " 
30     •'     •*       "         640  " 


/ooi  in 
25  feet  he  draws  540  lbs. 
24     "     "       "        500  " 
20     •'     '*        "        400  " 
JO     "     "       '*        250  •' 


160 


AGRICULTUBE. 


EFFECTS  OF  SURFACE  ON  TRACTIVE  FORCE. 

(Various  Authorities,  compiled  by  Herring.) 


Description  of  Road. 


Loose  sand 

Loose  gravel  (deep)  . . .  . 
Loose  gravel  (4  inches)  . 
Common  gravel  road  , . . 

Good  gravel 

Hard-rolled  gravel 

Ordinary  dirt  road 

Hard  clay 

Hard,  dry  dirt  road 

Macadam,  little  used. . 

Macadam,  bad 

Macadam,  poor  

Macadam,  common 

Good  macadam,  wet  . . . 
Best  French  macadam.. 


Tractive 
Force, 
Lbs. 


448 
320 
222 

147 
88 
75 

224 


140  to  97 
160 
112 
64 
75  to  42 
45 


Description  of  Road. 


Very    hard    and    smooth 

macadam 

Best  macadam 

Cobblestone,  ordinary  ... 

Cobblestone,  good 

Belgian  block 

Belgian  block  in  Paris  . . . 

Belgian  block,  good 

Stone  block,  ordinary 

Stone  block,  good 

Stone  block,  London 

Asphalt 

Granite  tramway . . . . 

Iron  railway 


Tractive 
Force, 
Lbs. 


46 

52  to  3a 

140 

75 
56  to  26 
54  to  34  ■ 

34i 

90 

45 
36 

12^  to  I3J 

8  to  11^ 


The  velocity  is  in  all  cases  taken  at  3  miles  per  hour. 

COST  OF  HAULING  FARM  PRODUCE  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 


c 
< 

rthJ  0 
< 

< 

Miles. 
5-9 

12.6 

8.8 

233 

Lbs. 
2216 

»397 
2409 
2197 

Cents. 
32 
27 
3t 

25 

22 
22 

$1.89 
1.86 
2.72 
3.05 
1.94 

5-12 

Northern  States 

Cotton  States 

Prairie  States     . .         .... 

Pacific  Coast  and  Mountain  States 

Averages  for  the  United  States. . . . 

12. 1 

2002 

25 

S3. 02 

*  Middle  States. 


The  total  weight  of  farm  products  in  1895  was  estimated 
at  219,824,227  tons  ;  if  the  forest  products  hauled  over  the 
public  roads  be  added  to  this,  we  get  313,349,227  tons, 
which  at  $3.02  per  ton,  makes  a  total  for  the  annual  cost  of 


AGRICULTURAL   EXGINEERIN'G. 


161 


hauling  on  the  public  roads  of  $946,414,665.  Nearly,  if  not 
quite,  two-thirds  of  this  vast  expense  may  be  saved  by  road 
improvement,  and  this  at  a  total  cost  not  exceeding  the 
losses  of  3,  or  at  most  4,  years  by  bad  roads  (Circ.  19,  Office 
of  Road  Inquiry,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.). 

LABOR  ONE  HORSE  IS  ABLE  TO  PERFORM 

at  different  rates  of  speed  on  canals,  railroads,  and 
turnpikes.     (Drawing  force,  83^  lbs.)     (Waring.) 


Useful  Eflect  for  i  Day,  drawn  i  mile. 

Duration  of 
Day's  Work, 

Speed  per 

Hour,  miles. 

hours. 

On  a  Canal, 

On  a  Railroad, 

On  a  Turnpike, 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

2^ 

iiJ^ 

520 

"5 

14 

3,. 

8 

243 

92 

12 

3^ 

6 

154 

82 

10 

4 

4^, 

102 

72 

9 

5 

29/10 

52 

57 

7-3 

6 

2 

30 

48 

6 

7 

1}^ 

X9 

41 

5 

8 

i^ 

12.8 

36 

45 

9 

9/10 

9 

32 

4 

10 

H 

6.5 

28.8 

3.6 

PERFORMANCE  OF  ONE  TEAM  AND  PLOUGH  IN 
A  DAY,  IN  ACRES  AND  TENTHS.  (Waring.) 


^  e 

<«  G 

U-.    ^ 

<«  <= 

1^1 

Acres. 

Acres. 

.■H2>iJ 

Acres. 

ill 

Acres. 

^5"" 

^5'" 

^5 
2 

^1 

5 

I.O 

12 

2.4 

4.8 

5^ 

13.2 

6 

1.2 

14 

2.8 

2^ 

6.0 

14.4 

7 

1.4 

16 

3-2 

3 

7.2 

6>^ 

15.6 

8 

1.6 

18 

3.6 

3^ 

8.4 

7 

16.8 

9 

1.8 

20 

4.0 

4   , 

9.6 

7^ 

18.0 

10 

2.0 

22 

4-4 

4^ 

10.8 

8 

19.2 

II 

2.2 

5 

12.0 

163 


AGRICULTURE. 


THE   EFFECT   OF   AVIDE   WAGON-TIRES. 

The  effect  of  wide  and  narrow  tires  for  wagons  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  following  results  of  carefully  conducted 
experiments  by  the  Studebaker  Wagon  Co.,  South  Bend, 
Ind.  In  the  trials  given  in  the  second  column  i|-inch  tires 
had  been  substituted  for  4-inch  tires.  (Agr.  of  Pa.,  1894  ; 
see  also  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  165;  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  13, 
and  Utah  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  4.) 


Weifjht  of  wagon  and  load 

Draft  to  Stan  load  on  block  pavement 

Draft  to  move  load  at  a  dead  pull  on  block  pave- 
ment    

Draft  to  start  load  on  good  hard,  sandy  road 

Draft  to  move  load  at  a  dead  pull  on  good  hard, 
sandy  road   ... 

Draft  to  start  load  on  good  level  gravel  road 

Draft  to  move  load  at  a  dead  pull  on  good  level 
gravel  road 

Draft  to  start  load  on  muddy  road 

Draft  to  move  load  at  a  dead  pull  on  muddy  road.. 


Width  of  Tires. 

4  inches. 

i^  inches. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

4345 
350 

4235 

300 

100 
700 

75 
725 

275 
600 

300 
650 

175 
800 
550 

175 
900 
500 

AVERAGE  QUANTITY  OF  STONE  REQUIRED  PER 
YEAR  TO  KEEP  10  FEET  OF  ROAD,  WIDTH  = 
20  FEET,  IN  REPAIR.     (Herschel.) 


Cub.  ft.     Cub.  yds. 

1.  Good  material  and  heavy  travel 15-20  =  .55-  .74 

2.  Good  material  and  medium  amount  of 

travel 10-15  = 

3.  Good  material  and  light  travel 5-10  = 

4.  Medium  material  and  heavy  travel. ..  .   20-25  = 

5.  Medium  material  and  medium  amount 

of  travel 15-20  = 

6.  Medium  material  and  light  travel 10-15  = 

7.  Third-rate  material  and  heavy  travel. .    25-30  = 

8.  Third-rate  material  and  medium  amount 

of  travel 20-25  = 

g.   Third-rate  material  and  light  travel. . .    15-20  = 


.37- 

.55 

.18- 

.37 

•74- 

.92 

.55- 

.74 

.37- 

.55 

.92-1 

.10 

.74- 

.92 

.55- 

•74 

AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING. 


16C 


INTERIOR  DIMENSIONS    OF  FARM  BUILDINGS. 

(McCONNELL.) 


Height. 


Barn 

"    (straw)  

Cattle  feeding-boxes,  double 

"  "  "        single.   

Cattle-sheds,  for  each  animal 

Cart-sheds,  etc.,  each  arch 

Cow-stable,  for  each  cow,  double 

"         "      "        "       single 

Dairy 

Fold  -yards,  for  each  animal 

Granary  

Hospital   

Manure-house 

Pigsties,  for  each  3  animals 

Poultry-house 

Root-house 

Stable,  for  each  horse 

Workshop  

General  dimensions  of  other  apartments 


Length. 

Breadth. 

ft. 

ft. 

40 

20 

60 

20 

10 

20 

10 

10 

5 

15 

8 

20 

4 

30 

4 

20 

20 

20 

5 

30 

30 

20 

18 

18 

18 

18 

6 

10 

18 

18 

30 

20 

6.5 

18 

18 

18 

18 

6J  ft.  allowed  to  the  length  of  the  stable  for  each  horse  in  it 
and  7  or  8  ft.  for  every  pair  of  cows  in  cow-stable.  Horses 
must  each  have  1200  cu.  ft.  of  space,  and  cattle  800  cu.  ft., 
where  stalled  in  stables.  Cattle-boxes  to  be  sunk  2  ft.  below 
surface  and  raised  by  a  dwarf  wall  i  ft.  above.  Cattle-folds 
and  sheds  should  have  a  length  of  5  ft.  for  every  animal  they 
are  intended  to  contain;  when  covered,  150  sq.  ft.  allowed  to 
every  head.  The  pigsties  have  small  open  areas  attached  to 
each. 


RECIPE   FOR   WHITEWASH. 

Slake  half  a  bushel  of  unslaked  lime  with  boiling  water, 
cover  during  the  process  to  keep  in  steam,  strain  the  liquid 
through  a  fine  sieve  or  strainer,  and  add  to  it  a  peck  of 
salt,  previously  dissolved  in  warm  water,  three  pounds  of 
ground  rice  boiled  to  a  thin  paste  and  stirred  in  while  hot, 
half  a  pound  of  Spanish  whiting,  and  one  pound  of  clear 
glue,  previously  dissolved  by  soaking  in  cold  water  and 
then  hanging  over  a  slow  fire  in  a  small  pot  hung  in  a  larger 


164 


AGRICULTURE. 


one  filled  with  water.  Add  five  gallons  of  hot  water  to  the 
mixture,  stir  well,  and  let  it  stand  a  few  days,  aovered  from 
dirt.  It  should  be  applied  hot,  for  which  purpose  it  can  be 
kept  in  a  kettle  or  portable  furnace.  The  east  end  of  the 
White  House  in  Washington  is  embellished  by  this  white- 
wash. It  is  recommended  by  the  government  for  white- 
washing light-houses. 

A  pint  of  this  wash  mixture,  if  properly  applied,  will 
cover  one  square  yard,  and  will  be  almost  as  serviceable  as 
paint  for  wood,  brick,  or  stone,  and  is  much  cheaper  than 
the  cheapest  paint. 

Coloring  matter  may  be  added  as  desired.  For  cream 
color  add  yellow  ochre;  pearl  or  lead,  add  lampblack  or 
ivory-black  ;  fawn,  add  proportionately  four  pounds  of 
umber  to  one  pound  of  Indian  red  and  one  pound  of  com- 
mon lampblack;  common  stone  color,  add  proportionately 
four  pounds  raw  umber  to  two  pounds  lampblack. 


TABLE  OF  CUT  NAILS.     (Trautwine.) 


Na--    "l^^R^ 

i 
No.  per' 
Lb. 

Name. 

Length, 
Inches. 

No.  per 
Lb. 

"Common"  nails 

2-penny 
3-     •'  fine 

3-  " 

4-  *' 

I  " 

7-  " 

8-  " 

If 

2 

2j 

7i6 
626 
440 
300     1 
210 
163      1 
123 
93 

470 

3?o 
ig6 
1x6 

280 
200 

10-penny 
12-     " 
20-     " 
30-     '' 
40- 

50-     " 
60-     " 

4 

4^ 
5 

5* 
6 

66 
50 
32 
19 
16 
13 
10 

Finishing-nails... 

4-penny 

t  :: 

8-     " 

I* 
If 

2 
2i 

10-penny 
12- 

20-     " 

4 

84 
65 
50 

Slating-nails 

3-penny 
4-      " 

S-penny 
6-      " 

If 
2 

160 
128 

2 
2i 

80 
66 
60 

2f 

3 

48 
40 



I* 

4 
5 

2Q 
21 
15 
13 

10 

5i 

6 

6i 

7 

8 

8 





7 
6 

S 
3i 

HUMAN   POODS. 


165 


XII.    HUMAN    FOODS. 


COMPOSITION    OF    HUMAN    FOOD    MATERIALS.* 

(Atwater.) 

Ordinary  food  materials,  such  as  meat,  fish,  eggs,  pota- 
toes, wheat,  etc.,  consist  of — 

Refttse. — As  the  bones  of  meat  and  fish,  shells  of  shellfish, 
skin  of  potatoes,  bran  of  wheat,  etc. 

Edible  Portion. — As  the  flesh  of  meat  and  fish,  the  white 
and  yolk  of  eggs,  wheat  flour,  etc.  The  edible  portion  con- 
sists of  water  and  7iutritive  ingredients  or  nutrients. 

The  principal  kinds  of  nutritive  ingredients  are  protein, 
fats,  carbohydrates,  and  mineral  matters. 

The  water,  refuse,  and  salt  of  salted  meat  and  fish  are 
called  non-nutrients.  In  comparing  the  values  of  different 
food  materials  for  nourishment  they  are  left  out  of  account. 
Classes  of  Nutrients. — The  following  are  familiar  examples 
of  compounds  of  each  of  the  four  principal  classes  of  nutri- 
ents 

{ Albu7ninoids,  e.g.,  albumen  (white  of 
I      eggs);  casein  (curd)of  milk;  myosin, 
j      the    basis    of    muscle    (lean    meat) ; 
Proteids.  \      gluten  of  \yheat,  etc. 

Gelatinoids,  e.g.,  collagen  of  tendons; 
ossein  of  bones;  which  yield  gelatin 
Protein.^  t     or  glue,  etc. 

Meats  and  fish  contain  very  small  quantities  of 
so-called  'extractives."  They  include  kreatin 
and  allied  compounds,  and  are  the  chief  ingre- 
dients of  beef-tea  and  meat-extract.  They 
contain  nitrogen,  and  hence  are  commonly 
classed  with  protein. 
Fats,  e.g.,  fat  of  meat  ;  fat  (butter)  of  milk  ;  olive-oil  ;  oil 

of  corn,  wheat,  etc. 
Carbohydrates,   e.g.,  sugar,   starch,  cellulose  (woody  fiber), 
etc. 

*  Extracts  from  "  Foods,  Nutritive  Value  and  Ccot  "  ( Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  23),  and  "  Food  and  Diet  "  (,U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Year  book,  1894). 


166  AGRICULTURE. 

Mineral   matters,   e.g.,  phosphate  of    lime,  sodium  chlorid 

(common  salt),  etc. 

The  Fuel  Value  of  Food. — Heat  and  muscular  power  are 
forms  of  force  or  energy.  The  energy  is  developed  as 
the  food  is  consumed  in  the  body.  It  is  measured  in  the 
laboratory  by  means  of  an  apparatus  called  the  calorimeter. 
The  unit  commonly  used  is  the  calorie,  the  amount  of  heat 
which  would  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water 
four  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Taking  ordinary  food  materials  as  they  come,  the  follow- 
ing general  estimate  has  been  made  for  the  average  amount 
of  heat  and  energy  in  i  pound  of  each  of  the  classes  of 
nutrients: 

Calories. 

In  I  pound  of  protein i,86o 

In  I  pound  of  fats 4,220 

In  I  pound  of  carbohydrates 1,860 

In  other  words,  when  we  compare  the  nutrients  in  re- 
spect to  their  fuel  values,  their  capacities  for  yielding  heat 
and  mechanical  power,  a  pound  of  protein  of  lean  meat  or 
albumen  of  egg  is  just  about  equivalent  to  a  pound  of 
sugar  or  starch,  and  a  little  over  two  pounds  of  either 
would  be  required  to  equal  a  pound  of  the  fat  of  meat  or 
butter  or  the  body  fat. 

Ways  in  which  Food  is  Used  in  the  Body. — Food  supplies 
the  wants  of  the  body  in  several  ways.      It  either — 

Is  used  to  form  the  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body; 

Is  used  to  repair  the  wastes  of  tissues; 

Is  stored  in  the  body  for  future  consumption; 

Is  consumed  as  fuel,  its  potential  energy  being  trans- 
formed into  heat  or  muscular  energy,  or  other  forms  of 
energy  required  by  the  body;  or. 

In  being  consumed  protects  tissues  or  other  food  from 
consumption. 

Uses  of  the  Different  Classes  of  Nutrients. — Protein  forms 
tissue  (muscle,  tendon,  etc.,  and  fat)  and  serves  as  fuel. 

Fats  form  fatty  tissue  (not  muscle,  etc.)  and  serve  as  fuel. 

Carbohvdrates  are  transformed  into  fat  and  serve  as  fuel. 


HUMAN   POODS.  1G7 

All  nutrients  yield  energy  in  form  of  heat  and  muscular 
strength. 

In  being  themselves  burned  to  yield  energy  the  nutrients 
protect  each  other  from  being  consumed.  The  protein  and 
fats  of  body  tissue  are  used  like  those  of  food.  An  impor- 
tant use  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  is  to  protect  protein 
(muscle,  etc.)  from  consumption. 

Definition  of  Food  and  Food  Economy. — The  views  thus 
presented  lead  to  the  following  definitions:  (i)  Food  is 
that  which,  taken  into  the  body,  builds  tissues  or  yields 
energy;  (2)  the  most  healthful  food  is  that  which  is  best 
fitted  to  the  wants  of  the  user;  (3)  the  cheapest  food  is  that 
which  furnishes  the  largest  amount  of  nutriment  at  the 
least  cost;  (4)  the  best  food  is  that  which  is  both  most 
healthful  and  cheapest. 

We  have,  then,  to  consider  the  kinds  and  amounts  of 
nutrients  in  different  food  materials,  their  digestibility,  and 
the  kinds  and  amounts  needed  for  nourishment  by  people 
doing  different  kinds  of  work. 

In  general,  the  animal  foods  have  the  most  of  protein 
and  fats,  while  the  vegetable  foods  are  rich  in  the  carbo- 
hydrates, starch,  and  sugar.  The  lean  meats  and  fish 
abound  in  protein.  Cheese  has  so  large  a  quantity  of 
protein  because  it  contains  the  casein  of  the  milk.  Among 
the  vegetable  foods,  beans  and  peas  have  a  high  proportion 
of  protein.  The  proportion  in  oatmeal  is  also  large.  In 
wheat  it  is  moderate,  and  in  corn  meal  it  is  rather  small. 
The  materials  with  the  highest  fuel  value  are  those  with 
the  most  fat,  because  the  fuel  value  of  the  fat  is,  weight 
for  weight,  two  and  one-fourth  times  as  great  as  that  of 
either  sugar,  starch,  or  protein.  Hence  fat  pork  and  butter 
lead  the  other  materials  in  fuel  value.  The  fat  meats  in 
general  stand  high  in  this  respect.  So  also  do  the  grains, 
flour,  and  meal,  as  they  have  large  quantities  of  carbo- 
hydrates. Potatoes  are  quite  low  in  the  list  in  respect  to 
fuel  value  as  well  as  protein,  principally  because  they  are 
three-fourths  water.  For  the  same  reason,  milk,  which  is 
seven-eighths  water,  ranks  low  in  respect  to  both  protein 
and  fuel  value. 


168 


AGRICULTURE. 


Dietaries  and  Dietary  Standards. — As  the  outcome  of 
a  great  deal  of  observation  and  experiment,  nearly  all  in 
Europe,  standards  have  been  proposed  for  the  amounts 
of  nutrients  and  energy  in  the  daily  food  required  by 
different  classes  of  people.  Those  of  Prof.  Voit,  of  Munich, 
Germany,  are  most  commonly  accepted  by  specialists  in 
Europe.  Voit's  standard  for  a  laboring  man  at  moderately 
hard  muscular  work  calls  for  about  0.25  pound  of  protein 
and  quantities  of  carbohydrates  and  fats  sufficient,  with 
the  protein,  to  yield  3050  calories  of  energy.  Taking  into 
account  the  more  active  life  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
fact  that  well  nourished  people  of  the  working  classes  here 
eat  more  and  do  more  work  than  in  Europe,  and  in  the 
belief  that  ample  nourishment  is  necessary  for  doing  the 
most  and  the  best  work,  I  have  ventured  to  suggest  a 
standard  with  0.28  pound  of  protein  and  3500  calories  of 
energy  for  the  man  at  moderate  muscular  work.  (For  list 
of  dietary  standards,  see  p.  175.) 

Calculation  of  Daily  Dietaries. — Due  regard  for  health, 
strength,  and  purse  requires  that  food  shall  supply  enough 
protein  to  build  tissue  and  enough  fats  and  carbohydrates 
for  fuel,  and  that  it  shall  not  be  needlessly  expensive. 

On  the  basis  of  the  standards  for  dietaries  given  on 
page  175,  various  combinations  of  food  materials  for  daily 
dietaries  may  be  made  by  calculations  from  the  table, 
showing  percentages  of  nutrients,  etc.,  in  food  materials 
(p.  169).  Thus  if  a  dietary  for  a  man  at  moderately  hard 
muscular  work  is  to  be  made  up  of  round  beefsteak,  butter, 
potatoes,  and  bread,  it  may  be  calculated  as  follows: 


Protein. 

Calories. 

Round  steak 

I  pound  contains 

Pounds. 
.18 
.01 

.019 
.088 

855 
3.615 

325 
I  280 

Butter 

I  pound  contains  . . 

Wheat  bread   . . . 

I  pound  contains   .         ... 

13  ounces  contain    ... 

Round  steak.       ... 

.14 

.02 
.12 

695 
680 

Potatoes 

6  ounces  contain 

320 
1,760 

Total 

.28 
.28 

3-455 
3.500 

Standard  for  man  at  mod- 
erate muscular  work 

HUMAK   FOODS. 


169 


PERCENTAGES     OF     NUTRIENTS,     WATER,     AND 
REFUSE   IN  SPECIMENS  OF  FOOD  3IATERIALS. 

(Atwater.) 


Food  Materials. 


Beef: 


Veal: 


lima  I  Foods,  as  Purchased. 

Neck 

Shoulder 

Chuck  rib 

Rib 

Sirloin 

Round  steak 

Side  without  kidney  fat 

Rump,  corned 

Flank,  corned 

Shoulder 

Mutton:  Shoulder 

Leg 

Loin 

Side,  without  kidney  fat. 

Pork:  Shoulder  roast,  fresh 

Ham,  salted,  smoked 

Chicken 

Turkey 

Eggs,  in  shell 

Fish,  etc. :  Flounder,  whole 

Bluefish,  dressed 

Codfish,  dressed  

Shad,  whole 

Mackerel,  whole 

Halibut,  dressed 

Salmon,  whole 

Salt  codfish 

Smoked  herring 

Salt  mackerel 

Canned  salmon 

Lobsters 

Oysters 


Animal  Foods^  Edible  Portion. 

Beef:  Neck 

Shoulder 

Chuck  rib 

Rib  

Sirloin 

Round 

Side,  without  kidney  fat. . . 

Rump,  corned 

Flank,      "       

Veal:  Shoulder 

Mutton:  Shoulder 

Leg 

Loin , 


20. 0 
12.6 
14.6 
21.0 
195 

7.8 
19.2 

5-0 

12. 1 
17.9 
16.3 
18. 1 
15-8 
17-3 
14.6 
II. 4 
38.2 
32-4 
13-7 
66.8 
48.6 
29.9 
so. I 
44.8 
17.7 
35  3 
42.1 
509 
40.4 

4.9 
62.1 
82.3 


Edible  Portion. 


.62. 

58. 
48. 
60. 

68. 
54- 


4Q.8 

68. 

58. 

61. 

49. 


Nutrients. 


30-4 
31.6 
35-9 
40.8 
32.2 
31-3 
36.5 
24.2 
44.2 
25-4 
34-7 
31-3 
42.7 


38. 


5 
42.4 

51- 
17.2 
22.9 
23.2 

6. 
II. 
II. 6 
14-7 
15 

20.4 
24 
17.6 
29.9 
31-5 
35-8 

6.9 

2-3 


38.0 

36.1 

42 

51-9 

40.0 

31.8 

45-2 

41. 

50- 

31- 

41. 


15 

18.0 
13-9 
16.7 
12.4 
16.6 
IS- 
12.6 
15.0 
13-6 
14. 
IS- 
16. 
12. 

5- 

9- 
10.6 

9 
10. o 

15 

14 

16 

20.2 

14.7 

19-3 

5 

I 


19-5 

19-5 

17.6 

15-4 

18.5 

20.5 

17.2 

13 

14-2 

20.2 


4 

3-7 
20.1 

27-9 
6.4 
2-3 

21. 

5- 
29.2 

7- 

8. 

5-6 
29-5 
23-7 
28.0 
34-6 

1.2 

5-9 
10.2 

0.3 

0.6 

0.2 

4 

4 

4.4 


17-5 

15-6 

23-5 

35 

20.5 

10 

27  I 

26.6 

33-0 
9.8 
22.4 
19.0 
35 -o 


61. 


0.1 

0.6 


170 


AGRIOULTtJllE. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

Nutritive  ingredients,  refuse,  and  fuel  value. 


Nutrients. 


Non-nutrients. 
Water.  Refuse. 


Fuel  value. 


Protein    Fats.    Carbo-     Mineral  Water.  Refuse.  Calories, 

hydrates,  matters 

Protein  compounds,  e.  g.,  lean  of  meat,  white  of  egg,  casein  (cui'cU  of  milk,  and 
gluten  of  wheat,  make  muscle,  blood,  bone,  etc. 
Fats,  e.  g.,  fat  of  meat,  butter,  and  oil,  )   serve  as  fuel  to  yield  heat 
Carbohydrates,  e.g.,  starch  and  sugar,  f        and  muscular  power. 


Nutrients,  etc.. 'p.  ct.    IQ  gQ  30 


40 


50       60 


80       90       1^ 


Fuel  value  of  lib.     400     800     1200    1600   2000   2-tOO    2800    3200    3600    4000 


*  yVithout  bone. 


HUMAK   FOODS. 


Iti 


PERCENTAGES  OF    NUTRIENTS,   ETC.,    IN  FOOD 

MATEniAJjS.—Conizmced. 


Food   Materials, 


Animal  Foods,  Edible  Portion. 
Mutton:  Side,  without  kidney  fat 
Pork:  Shoulder  roast,  fresh 

Ham,  salted,  smoked 

Fat,  salted  

Sausage:  Pork 

Bologna 

Chicken 

Turkey 

S!f;;;;;;;;;.v.v;:;.:::::::;;:::: 

Butter 

Oleomargarine 

Cheese:  Full-cream 

Skim-milk 

Fish:  Flounder 

Haddock 

Codfish 

Shad 

Mackerel 

Halibut 

Salmon 

Salt  cod 

Herring,  salt 

Mackerel,  salt 

Oysters 

Vegetable  Foods. 

Wheat  flour 

Graham  flour  (wheat) 

Rye  flour 

Buckwheat  flour 

Oatmeal 

Cornmeal 

Rice  

Peas 

Beans , 

Potatoes 

Sweet  potatoes 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Onions 

String  beans 

Green  peas 

Green  corn  

Tomatoes 

Cabbage « 

Apples 

Sugar,  granulated 

Molasses 

White  bread  (wheat) 

Boston  crackers 


Edible  Portion. 

Nutrients. 

u 

ci 

. 

"rt  u 

g 

0 

t 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

53-5 

46.5 

16.9 

28.7 

0.9 

50.3 

49-7 

16.0 

32.8 

0.9 

41-5 

58.5 

10.7 

39.1 

2.7 

12.1 

87.9 

0.9 

82.8 

4.2 

41.2 

S8.8 

n.8 

42.8 

2.2 

62.4 

37-6 

18.8 

15-8 

30 

72.2 

27.8 

24.4 

2.0 

1-4 

66.2 

33. « 

23.9 

8.7 

1.2 

73  •« 

26.2 

14.9 

10., s 

0.8 

87.0 

13.0 

3.6 

4.0 

4-7 

0.7 

10.5 

89.0 

I.O 

8s. 0 

o.S 

30 

II. 0 

89.  S 

0.6 

8s.o 

0.4 

3-0 

30.2 

69.8 

28.  H 

3=;-S 

1.8 

4.2 

41-3 

5a.7 

.3«-4 

6.8 

8.9 

4.6 

84.2 

is.« 

13.8 

0.7 

1-3 

81.7 

18.^ 

16.8 

0.3 

1.2 

82.6 

17.4 

15.8 

0.4 

1.2 

70.6 

29.4 

18.6 

9S 

1.3 

73-4 

26.6 

18.2 

71 

1-3 

75-4 

24. b 

18.3 

S.2 

1. 1 

63.6 

36.4 

21.6 

13 -4 

1.4 

S3.0 

21.4 

0.3 

1.6 

34.6 

36.4 

15.8 

1-5 

43-4 

17  3 

26.4 

2.6 

87.1 

12.9 

6.0 

1.2 

3-7 

2.0 

12.5 

87.5 

II. 0 

I.I 

74-9 

0-5 

131 

86.9 

II. 7 

1-7 

71.7 

1.8 

I3-I 

86.9 

6.7 

0.8 

78.7 

0.7 

14.6 

85.4 

6.9 

1.4 

76.1 

1.0 

7.6 

92.4 

15  I 

7-1 

68.2 

2.0 

I5-0 

85.0 

9.2 

3-8 

70.6 

1-4 

12.4 

87.6 

7-4 

04 

79-4 

0.4 

12.3 

87.7 

26.7 

1-7 

56.4 

29 

12.6 

87.4 

23.1 

2.0 

59-2 

31 

7«-9 

21. 1 

2.1 

O.I 

17.9 

1.0 

71. 1 

28.9 

i-S 

0.4 

26.0 

1.0 

8Q.4 

10.6 

1.2 

0.2 

8.2 

1.0 

88.6 

II. 4 

I.I 

0.4 

8.9 

1.0 

87.6 

12.4 

1-4 

0.3 

10. 1 

0.6 

87.2 

12.8 

2.2 

0.4 

9-4 

0.8 

78.1 

21.9 

4-4 

0.6 

16.0 

0.9 

81.3 

18.7 

2.8 

l.I 

13.2 

0.6 

56.0 

4.0 

0.8 

0.4 

2.5 

0.3 

Q1.9 

8.1 

2.1 

0.3 

5-5 

I.I 

83.2 

16.8 

0.2 

0.4 

15-9 

0.3 

98.0 

67.7 

97.8 
73-1 
56.3 

0.2 

24.6 
32-3 

2.3 
0.9 

8.8 

1-7 

».3 

91.7 

10.7 

9-9 

08.7 

2.4 

172 


AGRICULTURE. 


PECUNIARY  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD. 

■Amounts  of  actually  nutritive  ingredients  obtained  in  different 
food  materials  for  25  cents. 
[Amount  of  nutrients  in  pounds.    P'uel  value  in  calories.] 
Protein.     Fats.    Carbohydrates.  Fuel  value. 


i 

Ill 

Weights  of  nutrients  and  calories  of 
energy  in  25  cents  worth. 

bs. 
Oal 

Cts. 

Lb,. 

1  Lb.                   3  Lbs.                  5  L 

2000  CaL              6000  CaL             10000 

25.0 

1.00 

1               1               1               1 

m 

Beef,  sirloin 

15.0 

1.67 

'i'^Wi 

Beef,  round 

■■■^H 

Beef,  neck 

6.0 

,  .t-^ 1 

ifutton,  leg 

?,3.0 

,„ES ^ 

16.0 

1..56 

Ham,  smoked 

Salt  pork,  very  fat 

12^ 

^                        ^ 

Codjtsh,fresh 

8.0 

3.13 

g 

7.0 

3..57 

..            1 

12.0 

2.08 

'~^^ 

18.0 

1.13 

^ 

- 

Eggs,  25  cents  dozen 

U.7 

1.70 

m 

— 

mik,  7  cents  quart 

3.5 

7  11 

i':;EE?""i    '  "  '"'  "  —     -.-.-■ 

Ctuete,  whole  mtlk 

15  0 

r 

Cheese,  skim  milk 

8.0 

Butter 

80.0 

""^.^i 

Sugar 

5.0 

1^ 

8.33 

.  ,    .-          .-.,// 

Wluatflour 

±                             \ 

7.0 

;  .7 

\ 

Wheat  bread 

2.5 

10.00 

'^'/-''^m'^/mmmm 

Com  meal 

Spans 

5.0 

5.00 

■     ! 

Potatoes 

1.2|     <u.w 

Standard  for  daily) 
diet  for  man  at     , 

German.'' 

euu^asonauei 

American.^ 

^I.i~-^  ^  -^xJ 

Voit 


\Mwa.terj^ 


HUMxVX    FOODS. 


173 


AMOUNTS  OF  NUTRIENTS  FURNISHED  FOR 
TWENTY-FIVE  CENTS  IN  FOOD  3IATERIAL.S 
AT   ORDINARY   PRICES.     (Atwater.) 


Twenty-five  Cents  will  pay  for 

T3   ,A  Z^ .  ..  .— 


Food  Materials  as  Furnished. 


Meats,  etc. 

Beef:  Neck 

Chuck-ribs 

Ribs 

Shoulder 

Sirloin 

Rump 

Round,  first  cut 

Round,  second  cut. . . 
Flank, corned 

Corned  and  canned . . 

Liver 

Mutton:  Shoulder 

Leg 

Loin 

Pork:  Rib  roast 

Smoked  ham,  whole. 

Salt  fat  pork 

Pork  sausage 

Poultry,  etc. :  Chicken 

Turkey 

Fish,  etc. 
Mackerel,  whole 


Bluefish,  dressed. 
Cod,  dressed 


j  22 

1i8 

iT4 


i25 
j  20 

(  20 


ill 

S  22 
I16 


(  I' 


(    6 


lbs. 

313 
4.17 
1.56 
2.08 
1. 14 

1-39 
1.79 
2.50 
1. 14 
1-39 
1-39 
1.67 

1-39 
1.67 
2.50 

1.67 
2.50 
1-39 
1.79 

313 

1.67 
1. 00 
1-25 
1. 00 
1.25 
2.08 
2.50 
1.56 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1. 14 
1.56 
1.09 


1-39 
1.67 
2.50 
1.67 
2.50 
2.50 

3-13 
4.17 


Nutrients, 


lbs. 

•95 
1.27 
•56 
•75 
•47 
•57 
•57 
•79 
•37 
•45 
.63 
.76 
.44 
.52 
•52 
•65 
•77 
I. II 
.66 
•85 
.96 
.41 
.58 
•31 
•39 
•43 
•53 
.88 
1.06 
.86 
1.08 
1. 17 
1.03 
•98 
1.22 
•32 
•45 
•37 
•47 


lbs. 

•49 

.65 

•23 

•3 

•14 

•17 

•30 

•43 

•^7 

.21 

.19 

•23 

•25 

•30 

•35 

•44 

.21 

•31 

•37 


lbs. 

.44 
•58 
•31 
.42 
•32 
•39 
.25 
•34 
.19 
•23 
•43 
•52 
•^7 


lbs. 


.01 

.oil 


174 


AGRICULTURE, 


AMOUNTS      OF      NUTRIENTS      FURNISHED      FOR 
TAVENTY-FIVE    CENTS    IN    FOOD    MATERIALS 

AT    ORDINARY    PRICES. -Co n^znued. 


Food  Materials  as  Furnished. 


J^z's/i,  etc. 
Halibut  steaks 

Canned  salmon 

Oysters,  50  cts.  per  quart 

35     " 

Lobster,  whole 

'*        canned 

Eggs  and  Dairy  Products. 
Egrgs,  35  cts.  per  doz 

::  =^5  ;;   ::    

15  

Milk,  8  cts.  per  quart 

I'    6    "  ^;        

Butter '. \ 

Cheese,  full  cream 

Vegetable  Foods. 
Potatoes,  $1.00  per  bushel.. . 
.80 
"             .50       " 
Sweet  potatoes 

Beets 

Turnips 

Sugar 

Dried  beans 

Maize  "  corn"  meal 

Oatmeal 

Wheat  flour 

Wheat  bread  

Crackers 


25 

17.5 

j    12 

1 10 


1.7 

\   1-25 

(0.85 

i    5 
I    I 


'    4 


Twenty-five  Cents  will  pay  for 


o  rt 


lbs. 


2.50 
1.25 


1-37 
2.27 
6.25 
8.33 
12.50 

•7 
1. 00 


14.70 

20.00 

29.40 

S-oo 

8.33 

12.50 

25.00 

12.50 

25.00 

5.00 

4.17 

S-oo 

6.25 

8.33 

25.00 

5.00 

6.25 

7.14 

8.33 

3-57 

5.00 

2.08 


Nutrients. 


i 
lbs.  libs 

.261   .19 
•32 


•  23 

•32 

•53 

.81 

1.08 

1.63 

.64 

.90 

.96 

1-45 


•31 
.42 
.62 
.14 
.24 
.14 
.29 

•13 
.27 
4.90 
3-64 
4-37 
5-46 
7.08 
21.25 
4.61 

5-47 
6.25 
7.29 
2.42 
3.38 
1. 91 
2.88 


C   !M 

fU     o  o  c 


lbs. 


04 
05 

4.«u 
2.47 
2.96 
3-70 
5-88 
17-65 
3-42 
4.68 
5-35 
6.24 
2.0 
2.82 
1.47 

2.21 


cals. 

605 
740 

I^IO 

230 
345 
345 
415 
470 

645 
910 
1490 
2020 
2675 
4065 
2550 
3635 
3850 
4210 


580 

790 

1225 

240 

430 

240 

485 

225 

490 

9095 

6760 

8065 

IIIIO 

13720 
41115 
9255 
10285 
"755 
13695 
4570 
6445 
3970 
5930 


HUMAX   FOODS. 


1^5 


DIETARY    STANDARDS.     (Jaffa.) 


1.  Children,  1-2  years  (average) 

2.  Children,  2-6  years  (average) 

3.  Children,  6-15  years  (average) 

4.  Adult  in  full  health— Playfair 

5.  Active  laborers — Playfair    

6.  Man  at  moderate  work — Voit     

7.  Man  at  hard  work — Voit 

8.  Man   with    little   physical    exercise- 

Atwater 

9.  Man  with  light  muscular  work— At- 

water     

ID.  Man  with  moderate  work — Atwater. 

11.  Man  with  active  work— Atwater 

12.  Man  with  hard  work— Atwater 

13.  Subsistence  diet— Playfair 

14.  Average  of  7  dietaries  of  professional 

men,  Europe 

15.  Average  of  5  dietaries  of  professional 

men,  United  States 


■5s 

J 
-1 

t6^ 

EU 

£ 

^F 

^1^ 

.06 

.08 

.16 

765 

■13 

.oy 

■44 

1420 

.16 

.10 

•7> 

2040 

.26 

.11 

1. 17 

3140 

.34 

.16 

1.25 

3630 

.26 

.12 

l.IO 

3055 

•32 

.22 

•99 

3370 

.20 

.20 

.66 

2450 

.22 

.22 

•77 

2800 

.28 

.28 

•99 

3520 

•33 

•33 

1. 10 

4060 

•39 

•55 

1-43 

5700 

•13 

•03 

•75 

1760 

•25 

.22 

•63 

2670 

•27 

•34 

1.08 

3925 

:5.6 
S-o 
5-2 
5-5 
4-7 
5  3 
4-7 


5-7 
5-8 
S.6 
6.9 
6.3 

4^7 

6.6 


SUMMARY  OF  A3IEK1CAN  DIETARY  STUDIES. 

(Bry.^nt.) 


Families  Studied, 


Average  of  2  laborers'  families  in  com- 
fortable circumstances  

Average  of  15  college  clubs  in  Me.,  Conn., 
Tenn.,  and  Mo 

Average  of  10  farmers'  families  in  Vt., 
Conn.,  and  N.  Y 

Average  of  14  mechanics'  families  in 
Conn.,  N.  J.,  Tenn.,  and  Ind 

Average  of  12  negro  families  in  Ala.$.    . . 

Average  of  5  French-Canadian  families 
in  Chicago.  111. t    

Average  of  14  professional  men's  families 
in  Conn.,  Pa.,  Ind.,  and   111   ..    

Average  of  4  families  of  Russian  Jews  in 
Chicago,  111.$   

Av.  of  4  Italian  families  in  Chicago,  111.$. 

Average  of  n  poor  families  in  N,  Y,  City 

Av,  of   12  laborers'  families  in  N.  Y.  City 

Average  of  8  Bohemian  families  in  Chi- 
cago, Ill,t     

Average  of  2  laborers'  families  in  Pitts- 
burg.  Pa.,  very  poor... 


Av.Food  Consump.p.Man  p. Day 


28t 

19 
16 
15 
19 


107 

97 

103 
67 

118 

104 

120 
103 
93 

lOI 


■so 


o  rt  E 


534 
459 
467 

402 

453 

345 

423 

406 
391 
407 
344 

360 
308 


re  — 
>  =^ 


4045 

3690 

3515 

3465 
3375 

3365 

3325 

3095 
3060 
2915 
2905 

2885 

2485 


*  Average  of  o  studies,  +  Average  of  5  studies. 

X  Food  purchased;  inthe  other  averages  the  food  actually  eaten  is  given. 


176  AGRICULTURE. 

DIAGRAMS    OF    CUTS  OF    MEAT. 


^^^Si^-'o'^i  krfer/iousp^^ 


GO  lbs. 
at  20  cts. 


Round  §.     Flank 
Mili    35  lbs 

:cA\\\  f,    . 

M 


Prime  of  Rib 
100  lbs.  at  15  cts. 


'^^$m$m. 


"■-TtL^ 


Diagram  I.    A  Good  Steer's  Carcass,  as  Cut  Up  and  Priced  in  the 

Eastern  Market. 


A  good  1200-pound  steer  will  dress  about  8oo  pounds  of 
beef  cut  up  as  above — 715  pounds  salable  cuts,  with  85 
pounds  of  fat,  bone,  and  waste. 

The  diagram  illustrates  what  the  breeder  and  feeder 
should  aim  to  produce  in  the  conformation  of  the  beef-  and 
mutton-producing  animal,  so  that  the  highest  possible  per- 
centage of  the  carcass  will  be  cuts  of  the  high-priced  class, 
thereby  giving  the  best  possible  return  for  food  consumed, 
(McKerrov^.) 

The  methods  of  dividing  up  the  carcasses  of  slaughtered 
animals  into  parts,  and  the  terms  used  for  the  "cuts,"  as 
these  parts  are  commonly  called,  vary  considerably  in  dif- 
ferent localities.  The  accompanying  diagrams  will  make 
clear  the  terms  used  in  the  table  Composition  of  Human 
Foods  (pp.  169-71). 


HUMAN   FOODS. 


177 


IV.  Diagrram  of  Cuts  of  Pork,* 


*  U,  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


178 


AGRICULTUKE. 


LIVE  WEIGHT  AND  DRESSED  AVEIGHT  OF  STEERS 
OF  DIFFERENT  BREEDS  AND  AGES.      (Henry.) 


{Smithjield  Show,  1888-95.) 


Live    1 

No.  of 

Aver. 

Weight 

Breed 

and  Age. 

Ani- 
mals. 

Aver. 
Age. 

Daily 
Gains. 

at       i 
Sl^ugli- 
tenng. 

Dressed 
Weight. 

Days 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Tcr  Ct. 

Shorthorn, 

I  year  olds.. 

5 

642 

2. II 

1355 

66.1 

2      "        "    . 

i8 

963 

1.92 

1E42 

67.5 

3      "         "    -• 

16 

1 .72 

2251 

69.4 

Hereford, 

I       "         "    .. 

16 

663 

1.97 

1308 

65.1 

2       "         "    .. 

13 

1020 

1.78 

1817 

67.2 

3       "         "    • 

8 

1349 

1.64 

2218 

69.2 

Devon, 

I       "         "    . 

13 

634 

^•75 

1112 

66.0 

2       "         "    .. 

19 

1045 

I-5I 

1583 

67.7 

3      " 

16 

1311 

1-37 

1796 

67  3 

Aberdeen  An 

gUS,   I       "          "    . 

26 

668 

2.04 

1366 

65-4 

2      "        "    . 

■2\ 

1008 

t   74 

1765 

66.7 

3      " 

2 

1346 

1-59 

2138 

67.4 

Sussex, 

I       ' 

17 

677 

215 

1452 

65-4 

2       "         "    . 

18 

989 

1.86 

1837 

6a.  2 

3      "         "    • 

12 

1285 

1. 61 

2C64 

68.0 

Red  Poll, 

2      "         "    . 

12 

1C02 

t.64 

1631 

65-7 

3       "         "    • 

6 

1362 

1.49 

2022 

65.8 

Galloway, 

2       "         "    . 

7 

1027 

1.64 

1688 

64.5 

3       " 

4 

1344 

1-47 

1969 

64.8 

PROPORTION   OF   BEEF    TO    THE    LIVE    AVEIGHT 
OF    CATTLE.     (McConnell.) 


Live  Weight, 

Pounds 
Avoirdupois. 

Per  Cent  of  Beef. 

Class  L 

Class  n. 

Class  HL 

Under  2520 
"      2520 
1680-21C0 
1400-1680 
1400-1680 
1260  -1400 
I 260- I 400 
1120-1260 
I I 20-1 260 
980-1120 

Under    980 

70.72 
69.71 
66.68 
66.68 
62.65 
62  65 
57  61 
57-6i 
53-56 
53-56 

66.69 
66.69 

63  65 
60.62 
60.62 
54-59 
54-59 
50.53 
50.53 

Steers 

63.66 

6:5.66 

Steers 

Heifers 

57.63 
^7.62 

5' -56 
51-56 
48.50, 
48.50 
45-47 

Heifers  

Steers 

Heifers  

Heifers              

HUMAN   FOODS. 


179 


COMPARATIVE      RESULTS     OBTAINED     WITH 

FATTENING   ANI3IAL.S.      (Lawes  and  Gilbert.) 

(a)  Per  lOO  lbs.  live  weight  per  week. 


Received  by  Animal. 

Results  Produced. 

Total 

Dry 

Food. 

Digestible 
Organic 
Matter. 

Food  Con- 
sumed for 
Heat  and 
Work. 

Dry 

Manure 

Produced. 

Increase 
in  Live 

Weight. 

Oxen    

Sheep 

Pigs 

lbs. 
12.5 
16.0 
27.0 

lbs. 

8.9 

12.3 

22.0 

lbs. 
6.86 
9.06 
12.58 

lbs. 
4.56 
5.10 
4  51 

lbs. 

6.43 

(b)  In  relation  to  food  consumed. 


Increase  in  Live 
Weight. 

On  IOC 

lbs.  of  Dry  Food. 

Per  100 

lbs.  Dry 

Food. 

Per  100  lbs. 
Digested 
Organic 
Matter. 

Consumed 

for  Heat 

and  Work. 

Dry 

Manure 
Produced. 

Dry 
Increase 
Yielded. 

Oxen   

Sheep 

Pigs 

lbs. 
9.0 
II  .0 
»3.8 

lbs. 
12.7 

14-3 
29.2 

lbs. 

54-9 
56.6 
46.6 

lbs. 

36.5 
31.9 
16.7 

lbs. 
6.2 
8.0 
17.6 

LIVE   WEIGHT   AND  GAINS   MADE   BY   SWINE. 

(Henry  and  Sanborn.) 


Per  100  Lbs.  Live 

No.  of 

Aver. 

Daily 

Feed 

Weight. 

Live 

Ani- 

Feed 

per  Lb. 

Weight. 

mals. 

Weight. 

Eaten. 

Made. 

of 
Gain. 

Feed 
Eaten. 

Gain 
Made. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Under  50 

59 

37-7 

2.31 

.701 

3-30 

6.13 

1.86 

50-100 

91 

75-5 

3-33 

.900 

3- 70 

4.41 

1.19 

100-150 

119 

120. 1 

4.29 

1 .029 

4.17 

3  40 

.82 

150-200 

138 

176.2 

6.45 

1. 123 

5-75 

3-66 

.64 

200-250 

65 

214. 1 

6.89 

1.287 

5-35 

3.22 

.60 

250-300 

41 

266.4 

7-64 

1-457 

5.24 

2.87 

•55 

300-350 

12 
525 

333 -o 

6.02 

1-352 

4-45 

1. 81 

.41 

180 


AGRICULTURE. 


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PART  II.     DAIRYING. 


I.    DAIRY   COWS. 

ON  THE  ORIGIN  AND  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE 
DIFFERENT   BREEDS  OF   DAIRY    CATTLE. 

I.  Jersey  Cattle. 

The  origin  of  the  Jersey  cattle,  like  many  of  our  other 
improved  breeds  of  live-stock,  is  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty. The  theory  is  that  they  descend  from  cattle 
brought  from  the  Scandinavian  countries  to  Normandy, 
P'rance,  during  the  tenth  century  or  before,  whence  they 
Avere  introduced  into  the  Island  of  Jersey,  off  the  French 
coast.  The  breed  has  been  kept  pure  on  this  little  island 
for  a  longer  period  than  any  other  English  breeds,  as  a 
result  of  the  enactment  in  1789  of  a  law  forbidding  im- 
portations of  foreign  cattle  into  the  island.  According  to 
Flint,  Jerseys  were  first  imported  into  this  country  about 
1838,  but  heavy  importations  did  not  begin  until  after  1850. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  typical  Jersey  cows: 
Head  fine  and  tapering;  cheek  small;  throat  clean;  the 
muzzle  fine  and  encircled  with  a  slight  stripe;  the  nostril 
high  and  open;  the  horns  smooth,  crumpled,  not  very 
thick  at  the  base,  tapering,  and  tipped  with  black;  ears 
small  and  thin,  deep  orange  color  inside;  eyes  full  and 
placid;  neck  straight  and  fine;  chest  broad  and  deep;  bar- 
rel hooped,  broad  and  deep,  w.ell  ribbed  up;  back  straight 
from  the  withers  to  the  hip,  and  from  the  top  of  the  hip 
to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail;  tail  fine,  at  right  angles  with 
the  back,  and  hanging  down  to  the  hocks;  skin  thin,  light 
color,  and  mellow,  covered  with  fine  soft  hair;  forelegs 
short,  straight  and  fine  below  the  knee,  arm  swelling  and 
full  above;   hind  quarters  long  and  well   filled;  hind   legs 


184  DAIRYTNG. 

short  and  straight  below  the  hocks,  with  bones  rather  fine, 
squarely  placed,  and  not  too  close  together;  hoofs  small; 
udder  full  in  size,  in  line  with  the  belly,  extending  well  up 
behind;  teats  of  medium  size,  squarely  placed  and  wide 
apart,  milk  veins  very  prominent;  color  is  generally 
cream,  dun,  or  yellow,  with  more  or  less  white. 

The  Jerseys  are  generally  considered  a  butter-producing 
1  reed,  and  justly  so.  The  milk  produced  is  as  a  rule  richer 
',n  fat  and  solids  than  that  of  any  other  breed,  but  the 
quantity  yielded,  on  the  other  hand,  is  apt  to  be  lower. 
Milk  from  good  Jersey  cows  often  contains  over  six  per 
cent  of  fat,  the  average  being  about  five  per  cent.  Produc- 
tion of  rich  milk  has  been  the  primary  aim  of  Jersey 
breeders;  in  1881  the  secretary  of  the  American  Jersey 
Cattle  Club  wrote:  "  The  sole  office  of  the  Jersey  cow  is 
to  produce  the  largest  possible  amount  of  rich,  highly 
colored  cream  from  a  given  amount  of  food.  Everything 
else  in  connection  with  the  breeding  of  the  race  is,  or 
should  be,  incidental." 

The  highest  yields  of  butter-fat  or  butter,  in  case  of 
Jersey  cows  as  well  as  other  dairy  breeds,  are  not,  how- 
ever, apt  to  come  from  cows  producing  exceptionally  rich 
milk,  but  rather  from  such  producing  an  exceptionally 
large  quantity  of  good  milk;  generally  speaking,  an  ex- 
traordinarily high  fat-content  is  accompanied  by  a  small 
milk  yield. 

Typical  Jerseys  generally  have  a  high-strung,  nervous 
temperament,  and  in  order  to  do  their  best  must  receive 
good  care;  they  cannot  be  abused  as  to  feed  or  treatment 
without  injury;  for  this  reason  they  will  only  prove  a  suc- 
cess in  the  hands  of  intelligent  feeders  who  care  for  and 
take  an  interest  in  their  stock.  The  dairy  type  predomi- 
nates, viz.:  a  wedge-shaped,  deep-chested  body,  with 
good  digestive  organs,  large  full  udders,  well-developed 
milk-veins,  and  a  soft,  mellow  skin.  The  cows  are  gentle 
and  docile,  while  the  bulls  have  the  reputation  of  being 
hard  to  handle,  and  often  ugly  and  dangerous  after  a  couple 
of  years'  service. 

The  maximum  yields  of  milk  and  butter  produced  by 
Jersey   cows  are  given  on  page  189,  the  table  giving  the 


DAIRY    COWS.  185 

official  records.  In  the  breed-tests  conducted  by  the  ex- 
periment stations  in  Maine,  New  Jersey,  and  New  York 
(Geneva),  the  Jerseys  have  ranked  amon^  the  first,  but 
have  seldom  been  the  foremost.  As  the  average  of  all  tests 
of  dairy  breeds  up  to  date,  we  notice  that  the  Jerseys  rank 
after  the  Shorthorns  and  the  Guernseys  in  total  yield  of 
fat  during  a  full  period  of  lactation,  and  after  Guernseys  in 
the  cost  of  producing  one  pound  of  fat;  they  rank  first  as  to 
richness  of  milk  produced.  In  the  English  milking  trials 
conducted  by  the  British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association,  the 
Shorthorn  cows  have  generally  led  the  Jerseys  in  the 
total  quantities  of  fat  produced  per  day,  and  other  breeds 
have  also,  on  the  average,  given  better  results  than  these. 
The  Jerseys  came  out  victorious  in  the  breed-tests  con- 
ducted at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  in  1893;  they 
produced  more  milk,  butter-fat,  butter,  and  cheese,  and 
gave  a  higher  net  gain  than  either  of  the  two  other  breeds 
competing  (Guernsey  and  Shorthorn);  the  Guernseys,  on 
the  other  hand,  led  as  regards  the  cost  of  the  food  con- 
sumed. In  the  breed-test  No.  i  ("  the  fifteen-day  cheese 
test")  Ida  Marigold,  32615,  produced  the  largest  quantity 
of  cheese,  viz.:  70.92  lbs.,  and  Merry  Maiden,  69449,  the 
largest  quantity  of  butter-fat,  viz.:  30.73  lbs.  In  breed- 
test  No.  2  ("the  ninety-day  test")  Brown  Bessie,  74997, 
produced  178.12  lbs.  of  butter-fat.  Merry  Maiden  and  Ida 
Marigold  following,  with  164.81  lbs.  and  164.28  lbs.,  re- 
spectively. 

The  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  was  organized  in  July 
1868;  the  Herd  Register  of  the  club,  the  first  volume  of 
which  was  published  in  1871,  has  been  issued  in  fifty 
volumes  up  to  date,  including  in  all  52,000  bulls  and  134,000 
cows.  Butter  Tests  of  Registered  Jersey  Cows  gives  all  tests 
of  registered  Jerseys  where  the  yield  of  butter  for  seven 
consecutive  days  was  14  lbs.  or  more;  the  latest  volume 
published  is  Vol.  II.,  New  Series. 

The  present  secretary  of  the  American  Jersey  Cattle 
Club  is  J.  J.  Hemingway,  No.  8  W.  Seventeenth  St.,  New 
York  City. 


186  DAIRYIKG; 


il.  Guernsey  Cattle. 

By  Prof.  W.  H.  Caldwell,  Peterboro,  N.  H.,  Sec'y  Am.  Guernsey  Cattle 
Club. 

The  Guernsey  breed  takes  its  name  from  the  Island  of 
Guernsey,  one  of  the  Channel,  or  sometimes  termed  Alder- 
ney,  Islands.  The  origin  of  the  Channel  Island  cattle, 
while  somewhat  involved  in  controversy,  is  generally  be- 
lieved to  have  come  from  stock  originally  from  the  French 
provinces  of  Normandy  and  Brittany,  and  that  the  founda- 
tion for  the  Guernseys  was  laid  by  crossing  the  Normandy 
bull  on  the  Brittany  cow.  It  is  very  interesting  to  turn  to 
the  Island  of  Guernsey,  cut  off  as  it  is  from  the  main  land 
by  the  little  strip  of  sea,  and  protected  on  all  sides  by 
a  rough,  rocky  coast,  and  note  the  characteristics  which 
we  find  there  that  have  played  so  important  a  part  in 
moulding  the  character  of  the  Guernsey  of  to-day.  There 
the  shrewd,  careful,  sturdy  people  have  labored  many  years 
to  produce  a  cow  that  should  excel  in  butter  production. 
Their  labors  have  been  rewarded  in  the  Guernsey,  which  is 
noted  the  world  over  for  producing  butter  of  the  highest 
natural  color  and  with  the  least  outlay  for  cost  of  feed. 
Fate  might  have  been  different  with  these  people  but  for 
their  insular  situation,  pride  of  self-government,  habits  and 
customs,  which  led  them  to  zealously  fight  invasions,  and 
even  as  early  as  1789  to  take  measures  against  the  fraud- 
ulent importation  of  stock.  In  1S26  came  more  stringent 
laws,  that  prohibited  importation  to  the  island  except  for 
slaughter.  It  thus  isolated  the  islanders  and  their  cows 
from  the  cattle  kingdom. 

The  striking  appearance  of  the  Guernsey  is  at  once  seen 
in  its  rich  yellow  skin,  which  has  always  been  noted  as  the 
characteristic  of  a  good  butter-cow.  In  appearance  they  are 
rangy,  deep,  business-looking  animals,  with  a  particularly 
quiet,  gentle,  tractable  temperament,  free  from,  nervous- 
ness. The  prevailing  color  is  a  delicate  shade  of  fawn  with 
white  markings,  and  cream-colored  nose;  and  their  most 
remarkable  characteristic  of   richness   is    apparent    in   the 


DAIRY  COWS.  187 

golden  color  around  the  eye,  on  the  udder  and  teats,  at 
base  of  horn,  and  at  end  of  the  bone  of  tail. 

Until  recently  Guernseys  in  America  were  kept  chiefly 
for  family  use.  They  were  introduced  into  private  dairies 
around  Philadelphia  as  early  as  1840,  and  since  that  time  no 
other  breeds  have  been  permitted  to  replace  them.  The 
gentlemen  who  first  introduced  Guernseys  had  no  motive 
to  advertise  them.  They  esteemed  their  golden-colored 
products  so  highly  that  they  were  kept  for  the  supplying 
of  families  with  the  best  milk  and  butter  that  could  be  pro- 
duced. About  1865  a  few  Guernseys  were  introduced  by 
the  importers,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  some  of  our 
herds  of  to-day.  A  few  years  later  the  Massachusetts  So- 
ciety for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture,  realizing  the  great 
promise  of  the  breed,  imported  some  and  distributed  them 
at  a  public  sale  to  dairymen  in  the  State.  A  few  years 
later  a  number  of  Connecticut  farmers  joined  together  and 
sent  a  man  to  the  island  to  bring  over  a  lot.  It  soon  became 
obvious  to  these  gentlemen  that  some  organization  was 
necessary  to  preserve  the  purity  of  these  cattle  and  to 
encourage  their  recognition.  Accordingly  on  February  7, 
1877,  the  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  was  organized  in 
New  York  City.  At  that  time  there  were  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  pure-bred  Guernseys  in  the  country,  whose 
pedigrees  could  be  traced  without  question  to  importation 
from  the  island.  At  present  there  are  about  14,000  animals 
in  the  Register.  In  the  last  few  years — in  fact  since  the 
World's  Fair  Dairy  tests  in  1893,  and  the  work  at  the  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  Experiment  Stations — great  interest 
has  been  taken  in  the  Guernseys.  More  entries  and  trans- 
fers have  been  recorded,  and  more  members  have  joined 
the  Club  than  at  any  similar  period  in  its  history.  The 
public  are  just  realizing  the  straightforward  work  that 
has  been  quietly  done  for  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and 
find  in  a  study  of  it  that  there  are  many  valuable  records  to 
the  credit  of  the  breed.  These  are  all  the  more  valuable  as 
the  Guernsey  has  not  been  forced  for  high  records,  but 
have  honestly  won  their  way. 

The  best  records  reported  of  Guernseys  are  those  of  Lily 


ISS  DAIRYING. 

of  Alexandre,  No.  1059,  and  Imp.  Bretonne,  No.  3660.  Lily 
of  Alexandre  gave  12,8550-  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year  ;  and 
two  months  before  calving  tested  7.2  per  cent  of  butter-fat. 
Eretonne  gave  in  the  year  ending  October  20,  1894,  ii,2ig 
pounds  of  milk.  Her  milk  was  tested  carefully  once  a 
month  by  taking  a  composite  sample  of  eight  consecutive 
milkings.  The  lowest  test  was  5.2  per  cent  and  highest 
6.1  per  cent  butter- fat.  Her  milk  yielded  6o2yVtj-  pounds 
of  butter-fat,  or  equivalent  to  753i^o  pounds  of  butter  con- 
taining 80  oer  cent  butter-fat.  She  is  a  large,  well-built 
^ow,  and  weighed  at  the  close  of  her  year's  work  1150 
pounds.  In  addition  the  cow  Fantine  2d,  No.  3730,  owned 
by  Mr.  Chas.  Solveson  of  Nashotah,  Wis.,  gave  in  one  year, 
besides  dropping  a  fine  calf  and  being  dry  four  weeks,  9748 
pounds  of  milk,  the  lowest  test  being  5  and  the  highest 
5.6  per  cent  butter-fat,  which  would  yield  a  year's  record 
of  516.6  pounds  butter  fat  or  602  pounds  of  butter.  Mr. 
Ezra  Michener  of  Carversviile,  Pa.,  owns  the  cow  King's 
Myra,  No.  5339,  who  has  just  completed  the  year's  test 
under  the  direction  of  the  Guernsey  Breeders'  Association 
and  received  their  first  prize.  She  is  four  years  old,  and 
gave  in  the  year  861  r  pounds  of  milk,  which  yielded  539 
pounds  of  butter.  Nearly  a  hundred  cows  have  been  re- 
ported that  have  made  a  record  of  14  pounds  or  over  of 
butter  a  week,  and  several  that  have  made  exceedingly  fine 
single-day  tests,  as  one  cow.  Pretty  Dairymaid  2d  of 
Guernsey,  No.  6366,  who  in  an  oflicial  test  gave  in  three 
consecutive  days  61  pounds  2  ounces,  62  pounds  12  ounces, 
and  52  pounds  and  9  ounces  of  milk,  a  total  of  176  pounds 
7  ounces. 

Their  ability  to  produce  butter-fat  and  butter  at  a  low 
cost  demands  the  careful  attention  of  the  dairymen.  At 
the  New  York  Experiment  Station  several  of  the  dairy 
breeds  are  being  carefully  tested.  The  annual  report  of  the 
director,  which  was  recently  issued,  gives  the  result  of  the 
first  two  periods  of  lactation.  In  both  instances  the  Guern- 
seys produced  butter-fat  at  the  least  cost,  as  the  following 
shows  : 


DAIRY   COWS.  189 

COST  OF  BUTTER-FAT  PER  POUND. 

ist  Period.  ad  Period. 

Guernsey 18.4  cts.  15.6  cts. 

Jersey 20.0    "  18.5    '• 

Devon 23.0    "  19.0    " 

Ayrshire 24.3    "  24.8    " 

Am.  Holderness 26.3    "  22.8    " 

Holstein-Friesian 26.3    "  26.4    " 

This  agrees  with  the  work  done  at  the  New  Jersey  Ex- 
periment Station  and  with  the  average  results  of  the  butter 
tests  at  the  World's  Fair. 

COST  PER  POUND  OF  BUTTER  PRODUCED. 

New  Jersey.  World's  Fair. 

Guernsey 15.3  cts.  13. i  cts. 

Jersey 17.9    "  13.3    '* 

Ayrshire 20.6    "  .... 

Shorthorn 20.8    "  15.8    " 

Holstein 22.4    **  .... 

This  shows  the  Guernseys  to  be  the  most  economical 
producers  of  butter  ;  and  such  golden-yellow  butter,  too ! 

The  American  dairyman,  in  his  endeavor  to  improve  his 
own  herd  and  collectively  to  improve  the  herds  of  his  sec- 
tion, naturally  takes  a  great  deal  of  interest  in  the  grade 
dairy  cow.  In  the  progressive  dairy  sections  the  influence 
which  pure-bred  bulls  exert  is  readily  acknowledged. 
They  intensify  the  good  qualities  of  the  breed  to  which 
they  belong,  and  make  such  a  section  a  desirable  place  for 
the  seeking  of  good  family  and  profitable  dairy  cows.  The 
value  of  the  Guernsey  bull  in  effecting  this  improvement 
has  been  well  understood  for  many  years,  and  especially  is 
it  realized  to-day  in  the  desire  to  secure  in  the  dairy  cattle 
of  America  greater  physical  strength  and  more  profitable 
butter  production  without  reducing  size  or  sacrificing  rich- 
ness of  milk  production.  Mr.  Lewis  F.  Allen,  in  his  writings 
several  years  ago,  spoke  especially  of  his  experience  with 
the  Guernsey  for  grading.  He  said  his  experience  was 
good,  large-sized  animals,  free  and  persistent  milkers,  and 


190  DAIRYING. 

the  making  of  the  first  quality  butter  for  private  family  or 
hotel  use.  He  believed  that  on  a  whole  the  Guernseys 
were  more  satisfactory  for  the  dairy  than  any  which  in  his 
forty  years'  experience  he  had  ever  had.  His  cows  had 
good  square  udders,  well  set  front  and  behind,  teats  of 
good  size  and  easy  to  grasp. 

The  Herd  Register  is  published  by  the  American  Guern- 
sey Cattle  Club,  whose  headquarters  are  at  Peterboro,  N. 
H.  The  breeders  of  Guernseys  have  always  been  harmoni- 
ous in  letting  their  favorites  win  their  way  by  their  own 
straightforward  efforts  in  the  dairy.  By  addressing  the 
Secretary  of  the  Club  at  Peterboro,  N.  H.,  further  informa* 
tion  will  cheerfully  be  furnished. 

III.  Holstein-Friesian  Cattle. 

By   S.    HoxiE,   Yorkville,   N.   Y.,    Supt.    Advanced    Registry    Holstein- 
Friesian  Association  of  America. 

This  is  our  American  representative  of  the  Lowland 
race,  native  to  the  low,  rich  lands  of  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  Northwestern  Germany.  Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  the 
Friesians — a  tribe  of  people  mentioned  by  Roman  historians 
before  the  opening  of  the  Christian  era  as  peaceable  cattle- 
breeders  dwelling  on  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea.  The 
present  dairy-farmers  of  the  provinces  of  North  Holland 
and  Friesland  are  the  lineal  descendants  of  those  cattle- 
breeders,  and  they  are  to-day  handling  the  same  race  upon 
the  same  lands.  These  farmers  are  among  the  leading 
dairymen  of  Europe.  As  evidence  of  this,  Chambers'  En- 
cyclopedia* gives  the  export  of  butter  from  the  province  of 
Friesland  to  England  in  1874  as  266,041  cwt.  The  number 
of  cows  owned  in  that  province  in  1879  was  144,802.  As- 
suming the  same  number  in  1874,  this  export  averages  205! 
lbs.  per  cow;  assuming  the  same  number  of  acres  of  grass 
lands,  this  export  averages  117^  lbs.  per  acre.  We  have  no 
data  of  the  home  consumption  or  of  the  exports  to  other 
countries.     These  combined    must    have  been   large,   and, 

♦  Edinburgh  and  London  edition,  article  "  Friesland.'' 


DAIRY   COWS.  191 

were  they  added,  would  doubtless  much  increase  these 
averages.  Lest  some  reader  may  assume  that  a  part  of 
this  enormous  export  must  have  been  oleomargarine  or  ar- 
tificial butter,  it  is  well  to  add  that  no  such  products  were 
known  in  Friesland  at  that  date. 

According  to  U.  S.  Consular  Reports  on  Cattle  and  Dairy 
Farming,  the  amount  of  butter  imported  from  Holland  into 
Great  Britain  in  1877  was  41,679,085  lbs. ;  in  1884,  of  cheese, 
65,994,544  lbs.  The  import  of  butter  for  1877  rather  than 
for  18S4  is  quoted,  because  the  former  date  was  "  before 
oleomargarine  had  become  an  industry  in  that  country,"* 
Netherlands,  the  country  we  call  Holland,  has  eleven  prov- 
inces of  a  total  area  of  12,597  sq.  miles.  The  two  dairy 
provinces  are  North  Holland  and  Friesland  with  a  total 
area  of  2303  sq.  miles.  There  is  no  question  that  the  bulk 
if  not  all  of  these  vast  imports  came  from  these  two  prov- 
inces. The  significance  of  these  statistics  is  best  seen  by 
a  comparison,  Oneida  and  Herkimer,  two  adjoining  dairy 
counties  in  the  State  of  New  York, have  about  the  same  area 
as  the  two  dairy  provinces  of  Holland.  The  whole  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  furnished  Great  Britain,  in  1884, 
17,440,416  lbs,  butter  and  109,333,280  lbs.  cheese.  The  Hol- 
stein-Friesian  breed  is  exclusively  used  in  North  Holland 
and  Friesland.  With  these  statistics  before  him  the  reader 
may  safely  be  left  to  draw  his  own  conclusions. 

As  to  the  characteristics  of  this  breed  the  most  important 
one  is  indicated  by  such  statistics.  To  the  casual  observer 
the  color  may  appear  more  striking.  This  is  variegated  in 
distinct  markings.  The  American  herd-books  receive  only 
black-and-white  to  entry.  The  European  herd-books  receive 
red-and-white,  gray-and-white,  and  mouse-colored-and- 
white  ;  but  the  great  bulk  of  their  entries  are  black-and- 
white.  The  structure  of  the  breed  is  also  an  important 
characteristic.  This  is  best  shown  by  measurements.  The 
average  measurements  of  full-age  cows  (those  five  years  old 
and  upwards)  received  to  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Holstein- 
Friesian    Advanced    Register  were   as  follows  :  Height  at 

*  U.  S.  Consular  Reports  [i836]— Cattle  and  Dairy  Farming,  p.  i|. 


192  DAIRYING. 

shoulders,  51.8  -f  inches;  at  hips,  53;  length  of  body,  64.9  -f; 
of  rump,  21.4  — ;  width  of  hips,  21.9  — ;  at  thurl,  19.6+; 
girth  at  smallest  circumference  of  chest,  75.6 -|-.  These 
are  fairly  representative  of  the  breed,  and  describe  what  is 
technically  called  the  milk-and-beef  form.  There  are  ani- 
mals of  the  breed  of  other  forms,  but  in  this  respect  must 
be  regarded  as  exceptional.  The  average  weight  of  these 
cows  was  1262  -f-  lbs.  This  is  also  fairly  representative  of 
the  breed.  Rapidity  of  growth  and  earliness  of  maturity 
are  important  characteristics  of  the  breed.  These  may  also 
be  shown  by  measurements.  The  entries  in  one  of  the 
European  herd-books  from  actual  measurements  taken 
show  that  heifers  reach  their  full  height  at  between  two 
and  a  half  and  three  years  old,  that  each  year  for  the  fol- 
lowing two  years  they  increase  one  and  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  in  length  of  body,  two  inches  in  girth  of  chest,  and 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  width  of  hips.  After  five  years 
old  no  increase  is  shown  except  what  may  be  properly 
ascribed  to  additions  of  flesh.  Its  calves  are  large  at  birth, 
they  take  on  flesh  rapidly,  and  the  veal  is  unsurpassed  in 
quality.  In  Holland  nearly  all  cows  are  beefed  at  five  and 
six  years  old.  On  his  return  from  an  agricultural  tour  in 
Europe  Prof.  I.  P.  Roberts  in  speaking  of  the  quality  of  its 
beef  said,  "  I  ate  of  it  for  three  weeks,  and  the  English  beef 
for  two,  and  while  not  so  fat  as  the  Short-Horn  it  was  to  my 
taste  superior."  * 

Another  and  very  important  characteristic  is  constitu- 
tional vigor.  No  dairy  breed  probably  excels  it  in  this.  It 
enables  the  breed  to  resist  disease,  to  endure  climatic 
changes,  and  its  cows  to  endure  forcing  to  enormous  pro- 
ductions. In  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great,  importations  of 
this  breed  of  cattle  were  made  into  Northern  Russia,  into 
the  district  of  Kolmogory,  within  three  and  a  half  degrees 
of  the  Arctic  Circle.  Other  importations  have  continued 
to  the  present  time.  All  have  acclimated  without  difficulty. 
No    greater    test    of    its    vitality    can    well    be    imagined. 


*  Report  of  Second  Annual  Convention,  N.  Y.  State  Dairymen's  Asso- 
ciation, p.  58. 


DAIRY    COWS.  193 

Crossed  on  the  nondescript  native  cattle  of  that  district, 
they  have  produced  a  numerous  progeny  called  the  Kolmo- 
gory  breed,  "  remarkable  for  its  yield  of  milk."  * 

Every  breed  has  limited  adaptations.  A  breed  valuable 
in  one  section  may  not  be  valuable  in  another  that  differs 
in  soil,  lay  of  territory,  and  wants  of  its  inhabitants.  The 
characteristics  of  this  breed  make  it  specially  valuble  on 
rich  soils,  level  lands,  and  in  densely  populated  districts, 
where  every  product — milk,  butter,  cheese,  beef,  and  veal 
— can  be  utilized.  In  view  of  the  law  of  utility  the  merits 
of  a  breed  may  properly  be  measured  by  its  distribution. 
We  find  that  this  breed  occupies  more  territory  and  is  more 
widely  distributed  than  any  other  dairy  breed.  It  is  the 
exclusive  breed  of  North  Holland  and  Friesland,  "  more 
esteemed  than  any  other  in  Belgium  ;  "f  "  furnishing  the 
best  and  most  prolific  cows  in  Germany;":}:  "  crossed  on 
native  cattle,  the  favorite  in  St.  Petersburg,"  §  and  largely 
used  in  almost  every  dairy  section  of  Europe  outside  of 
Switzerland  and  Great  Britain. |  It  is  also  being  intro- 
duced into  South  Africa,  New  Zealand,  and  several  of  the 
South  American  states. 

Its  introduction  and  spread  in  this  country  is  one  of  the 
marvels  of  our  time.  The  first  herd-book  was  published 
in  1872  with  128  entries.  The  Holstein-Friesian  Associa- 
tion was  formed  in  1885  by  the  union  of  two  others.  No 
association  ever  handled  cattle  with  less  subterfuge.  At 
its  annual  meeting,  June  7,  1899,  it  reported  74,474  entries. 
It  also  reported  two  hundred  official  butter  tests  during 
the  preceding  year.  These  tests  were  under  supervision 
of  experiment  stations  with  a  view  of  determining  butter 
capacity.  The  Babcock  test  was  invariably  used,  and  the 
periods  of  testing  were  for  seven  consecutive  days.  Fifty- 
five  full-age  cows  yielded  an  average  of  15.06  lbs.  butter-fat, 


*  U.  S.  Consular  Reports  [1886]— Cattle  and  Dairy  Farming,  p.  519. 
t  The  same,  p.  367. 
i  The  same,  pp.  398,  404. 
§  The  same,  p.  519. 

II  Importations  from  the    Continent  prevented   by  severe  quarantine 
laws. 


194  DAIRYING. 

twenty-two  four-year-olds  yielded  an  average  of  14.26  lbs., 
forty-one  three-year-olds  an  average  of  12.61  lbs.,  and 
eighty-two  two-year-olds  9.37  lbs.  Up  to  the  present  time, 
the  close  of  the  year  1899,  equal  records  under  as  severe 
surveillance  have  been  made  by  no  other  breed. 

IV.  Ayrshires. 

By  C.  M.  WiNSLOw,  Brandon,  Vt.,  Secretary  Association  of  Ayrshire 
Breeders. 

The  original  home  of  the  Ayrshire  cow  is  in  Scotland, 
in  the  county  of  Ayr.  This  county  has  always  been  noted 
for  its  dairy  industry,  and  the  thrift  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  soil  is  strong,  giving  good  pasturing  and  abundant 
crops,  the  climate  is  rough,  and  people  and  cattle  hardy. 

The  Ayrshires  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  dairy- 
men in  other  parts  of  the  world  some  fifty  years  ago,  and 
there  was  an  importation  made  into  Canada  and  the  New 
England  states,  where  they  are  bred  in  considerable  num- 
bers and  highly  prized.  They  have  been  sent  South,  and 
are  said  to  endure  the  heat  better  than  any  other  breed. 
They  also  are  said  to  stand  the  cold  of  Canada  better  than 
any  other  dairy  breed. 

The  Ayrshire  cow  is  of  medium  size,  weighing  about  one 
thousand  pounds,  of  blocky  build,  low  on  legs,  and  usually 
spotted  in  color,  being  red  and  white  as  a  rule,  though 
sometimes  nearly  red.  They  are  hardy  and  healthy,  en- 
during changes  of  heat  and  cold  with  little  discomfort,  and 
quickly  adapt  themselves  to  surrounding  conditions.  They 
perhaps  show  to  the  best  advantage  where  the  food  sup- 
ply is  limited,  and  they  are  compelled  to  hunt  for  a  full 
supply. 

It  is  claimed  for  the  cows  of  this  breed  that  they  will 
give  the  largest  return  of  dairy  product  for  food  consumed 
of  any  of  the  dairy  breeds.  There  has  never  been  much 
said  or  done  by  the  owners  of  Ayrshires  to  bring  their 
merits  to  the  attention  of  the  public.     They  are  a  popular 

*  U.  S.  Consular  Reports  [1886] —Cattle  and  Dairy  Farming-,  pp.  398,  404, 
t  The  same,  p.  519. 


DAIRY   COWS.  195 

cow  for  the  milkman,  because  they  are  economical  pro- 
ducers and  because  they  give  milk  of  good  quality  that 
satisfies  the  trade. 

High-grade  Ayrshire  cows  always  command  the  highest 
fancy  price  in  Brighton,  to  go  into  the  stables  of  milk  pro- 
ducers. It  13  said  by  the  mJlk  inspectors  of  Boston  that 
they  have  no  trouble  w'th  the  milk  from  Ayrshire  herds, 
it  being  up  to  the  13  per  cent  total  solids  required  by  Massa- 
chusetts law. 

The  average  yield  of  Ayrshire  cows  is  a  little  over  6000 
lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year,  on  ordinary  dairy  food  and  care,  but 
there  are  a  large  number  of  individual  cows  with  authenti- 
cated records  all  the  way  from  7000  lbs.  to  over  12,000  lbs. 
of  milk  in  a  year.  There  has  never  been  any  attempt 
made  to  develop  the  butter  quality  of  the  Ayrshire  cow, 
and  but  little  is  known  of  her  ability  in  this  direction;  but 
occasional  evidence  shows  her  to  be  naturally  adapted  to 
taking  a  high  stand  as  a  butter  maker,  if  she  was  desired 
for  that  branch  of  dairying.  The  following  instances  of 
her  butter  quality  will  illustrate: 

Duchess  of  Smithfield,  owned  by  Mr.  Watson,  gave  an 
official  record  of  19  lbs.  6  oz.  of  butter  in  seven  days. 

Rena  Myrtle,  a  cow  sold  by  the  writer  to  the  experiment 
station  at  Burlington,  Vt.,  gave  them  this  last  year  546  lbs. 
of  butter  in  365  days,  being  the  largest  butter  record  they 
ever  made  by  any  cow  of  any  breed.  Her  milk  record  for 
the  time  was  12,172  lbs. 

I  might  mention  other  instances,  but  they  are  private 
records. 

The  Ayrshire,  being  a  dairy  cow,  has  never  been  claimed 
for  beef  or  even  for  a  general  purpose  cow,  but  her  easy 
keeping  qualities  and  hardy  disposition  cause  her  to  lay 
on  flesh  rapidly  when  dry,  and  she  will  probably  return  to 
her  owner  in  beef  the  full  cost  of  raising  her.  Farmers 
who  fatten  calves  for  veal  tell  me  the  calves  are  small 
when  born,  but  grow  so  rapidly  that  when  of  age  to  sell, 
are  large  and  heavy  for  their  age  and  are  good  handlers. 

[Mr.  Winslow's  herd  of  Ayrshire^  averaged  during  iS()5 
6765  lbs.   of  milk;  average  per  cent  of    fat,   3.85;  average 


196  DAIRYING. 

yield  of  butter  fat,  260.5  lbs.,  or  of  butter,  303.9  lbs.  (see 
p.  244).  In  maintaining  his  herd  he  adheres  to  the  following 
requirements: 

"  Size:  About  loco  pounds  at  maturity,  this  size  having 
been  found  to  give  the  best  results  in  this  locality,  and 
being  of  sufficient  size  to  please  buyers,  either  for  breeding 
or  to  sell  in  Brighton  as  milk  cows. 

"  Color:  Dark  red  with  white  patches — about  one-fourth 
white  being  preferred.  This  gives  a  wonderfully  attractive 
and  lively  look  to  a  herd  of  cows,  grouped  or  moving. 
Then,  too,  I  have  thought  cows  of  this  color  were  tougher 
and  gave  yellower  milk  and  butter. 

"  Style:  Small  head  and  horns,  slim  neck,  straight  back, 
sharp  shoulders,  wide  on  the  loin;  large,  shapely  hind 
quarters;  long,  slim  tail;  udder  extending  well  forward 
and  back,  well  up  under  belly;  teats  long,  of  equal  length, 
well  spread;  large  milk  veins. 

"Disposition:  Quiet  and  pleasant." — W.] 

V.  Shorthorns   as   Dairy  Cows. 

By  J.  H.  PicKRELL,  Springfield,  111.,  Secretary  American  Shorthorn  Breed- 
ers' Association. 

Away  back  in  the  early  history  of  this  country,  there 
were  occasionally  cows  imported  from  England.  Buffalo 
and  wild  game  were  abundant  for  meat,  but  milk,  butter, 
and  cheese  did  not  come  that  way. 

As  creatures  of  circumstances,  cows  were  in  demand. 
Soon  after  the  Revolutionary  War,  cattle  that  were  pure- 
bred Shorthorns  were  imported  into  Virginia,  and  after- 
wards, in  1797,  found  their  way  into  Kentucky.  The  cows 
were  said  to  be  great  milkers,  and  are  reported  to  have 
given  as  much  as  32  quarts  of  milk  per  day,  and  were 
called  by  the  natives  "  the  milk  breed."  Later  importa- 
tions with  more  particular  reference  to  their  beef  qualities 
were  made,  but,  in  spite  of  all  that  had  been  fed  into  them 
with  that  end  in  view,  many  of  the  cows  developed  into 
remarkably  heavy  milkers,  and  were  very  noted  for  their 
large  yield  of  a  good  quality  of  milk. 

The  late  L.  F.  Allen,  in  his  history  of  "American  Cat- 
tle," published  in   1S6S,   says:   "  We   have  numerous  well- 


DAIRY    COWS.  197 

authenticated  instances  of  their  (Shorthorns)  giving  six, 
seven,  eight,  and  even  nine  gallons  a  day,  on  grass  alone, 
in  the  height  of  their  season,  and  yielding  fourteen  to 
eighteen  pounds  of  butter  per  week,  and  of  holding  out  in 
their  milk  in  proportionate  quantity,  as  well  as  other 
breeds  of  cows,  through  the  year.  Cows  so  much  larger 
in  size  than  other  kinds  should  be  expected  to  give  more 
than  smaller  ones  that  consume  less  food,  and  without  as- 
serting that  they  do  give  more,  in  proportion  to  their  size, 
it  is  claimed  that  when  educated  and  used  for  the  dairy 
chiefly,  they  give  quite  as  much  as  others.  That  the  in- 
herent quality  of  abundant  milking  exists  in  the  Short- 
horns, no  intelligent  breeders  of  them  need  doubt.  Our 
own  observation  in  more  than  thirty  years'  experience 
with  hundreds  of  them,  first  and  last,  under  our  own  eyes, 
is  to  ourself  evidence  of  the  fact,  both  in  thoroughbreds 
and  grades." 

The  Columbian  dairy  tests,  though  made  under  un- 
favorable circumstances,  proved  the  milking  qualities  of 
Shorthorns.  I  say  unfavorable,  because  the  matter  was 
not  taken  hold  of  soon  enough  by  the  American  Short- 
horn Breeders'  Association,  under  whose  auspices  the  ex- 
hibit was  made,  to  select  the  best  cows  in  every  instance 
so  as  to  have  them  bred  to  produce  and  have  them  at  their 
highest  flow  of  milk  at  the  proper  time.  As  a  conse- 
quence, cows  had  to  be  picked  up  that  had  produced  at 
hap-hazard,  and  were  not  in  every  instance  the  best  that 
might  have  been  used,  if  selections  had  been  made  in  sea- 
son to  have  them  bred  so  as  to  have  them  produce  just  prior 
to  the  tests.  But  with  all  these  disadvantages,  the  two 
strictly  acknowledged  dairy  breeds — bred  for  that  purpose 
almost  exclusively — which  were  selected  with  the  greatest 
care,  so  much  so  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  could  be 
duplicated,  had  but  little  the  advantage  of  the  Shorthorns  in 
the  general  '*  round-up,"  as  a  few  comparisons  will  prove. 
In  test  No.  i  (cheese),  with  25  cows  of  each  breed,  the 
score  stood  as  follows: 

Jerseys 906.  i  points 

Shorthorns 905.5       " 

Guernseys 871.9       " 


198  DAIRYIKG. 

In  the  score  for  perfection  of  lOO  points  flavor  was  counted 
55  points. 

Shorthorns  headed  the  list  by  taking  504.3  points. 

Jerseys 497-8       " 

Guernseys 489.4       " 

The  cost  of  production  was  : 

Shorthorns $99.36 

Jerseys g8. 14 

Guernseys 76.25 

The  champion  cheese  cow  of  the  Jerseys  netted $6.97 

"  "  "  "     "      "    Shorthorns   netted..       6.27 

"  **  '*  "     "      "    Guernseys  "      ..        5.27 

In  the  second  test,  90  days,  for  butter,  loss  and  gain  in 
live  weight,  where  maintenance  was  counted  against  the 
cows,  the  net  gain  was  for 

Jerseys  (25  cows) $1,323.81 

Guernseys  (25  cows) 997.63 

Shorthorns  (24  cows) gii.i^ 

To  produce  this  result  it  cost  the 

Jerseys  (25) $587.87 

Shorthorns  (24) 506.50 

Guernseys  (25) 487.25 

The  champion 

Shorthorn  cow  (Nora)  produced  3679.8  lbs.  of  milk. 
Jersey  (Brown  Bessie)         "  3634       "     "       " 

Guernsey  (Materna)  "  354S.8    "      "       " 

When  reduced  to  gain  in  the  products  over  cost  of  pro- 
duction, the  account  stood  as  follows  : 

Jersey  cow $73. 22 

Guernsey  cow 57-82 

Shorthorn  cow 52.63 

Again,  in  tests  2.  3,  and  4  (Guernseys  were  not 
in  test  No.  4)  the  three  best  Shorthorns  (one  in  each 

test,  including  the  two-year-old  heifer)  gave 5861  lbs. 

While  the  Jerseys  of  the  same  description  gave.  .   5330    " 

Showing  in  favor  of  Shorthorns 531    " 


Dairy  cows.  199 

In   test    No.    3   (butter),     "go    as    you    please," 
The  champion   Jersey   cow   at  a  cost  of  $8.57  pro- 
duced net $'24.69 

The    champion  Shorthorn   cow    at  a  cost  of    §8.18 

produced  net iQ-57 

The  champion  Guernsey  cow  at  a  cost  of  ^5.57  pro- 
duced net S19.37 

In  test  No.  4  (heifers)  7  Jerseys  cost  for  food  834-43 

and  netted 56.27 

6  Shorthorns  cost  $23.52  and  netted 47-42 

making  an  average  of  13  cents  per  head  in  favor  of  the  Jer- 
seys. 

While  butter  was  rated  by  points,  beef  was  not,  and  the 
Jerseys  got  as  much  allowance  per-  pound  for  gain  in  live 
weight  as  the  Shorthorns. 

As  hinted  above,  dairy  cows  are  not  always  wanted  for 
butter  alone,  or  cheese  alone,  but  very  frequently  to  sup- 
ply city  customers  with  good  milk  for  their  tables.  The 
tests  at  the  Columbian  Dairy  School  proved  that  for  a 
large  supply  of  milk  of  the  best  flavor,  Shorthorns  not 
only  were  good  dairy  cows  in  every  sense  of  the  term,  but 
that  they  led  the  other  two  breeds.  Therefore,  if  milk  of 
good  quality  and  lots  of  it  is  wanted,  Shorthorn  cows  can 
supply  it,  to  say  nothing  of  their  "  general-use  "  qualities 
that  will  just  suit  the  farmer  who  wants  milk,  butter, 
cheese,  and  beef. 

VL  Red   Polled   Cattle. 

By  J.  McLain  Smith,  Dayton,  Ohio,  Secretary  Red  Polled  Cattle  Club  of 
America. 

Hornless  or  polled  cattle  have  existed  in  the  counties  of 
Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  England,  from  time  immemorial. 
Originally  there  were  two  distinct  types:  the  Suffolks, 
usually  of  a  pale  red  or  dun  color,  and  hence  known  as 
Suffolk  duns — large  and  rather  rough  cattle,  but  celebrated 
for  their  milking  qualities;  and  the  Norfolks,  commonly 
deep  red  in  color,  smaller,  finer,  more  compact  in  build, 
not  so  large  milkers,  but  great  favorites  with  the  butcher. 


200  DAIRYIKG. 

Youatt,  speaking  of  the  old  Suffolk  strain  as  it  existed 
in  his  day  (some  half  century  ago),  says:  "  In  the  height 
of  the  season  some  of  these  cows  will  give  as  much  as  eight 
gallons  of  milk  (80  lbs.)  in  a  day,  and  six  gallons  (60  lbs.) 
is  not  an  unusual  quantity." 

The  modern  Red  Polled  cow  is  a  result  of  the  combina- 
tion of  these  old  strains,  and  it  is  the  aim  of  the  most  pro- 
gressive breeders  to  produce  a  cow  of  medium  size,  blood- 
red  in  color,  of  fine  bone,  smooth  and  compact  of  form, 
hardy,  docile,  fatting  easily,  and  giving  a  good  flow  of 
fairly  rich  milk  all  the  year  round.  The  breed,  in  other 
words,  is  being  developed  as  a  general  farm  cow,  suited 
to  the  wants  of  the  general  farmer.  While  the  cows  can- 
not, I  think,  compete  in  flow  of  milk  with  the  best  Hol- 
steins,  or  in  yield  of  butter  with  the  best  Jerseys,  and  the 
steers  have  not,  as  yet,  taken  a  place  in  the  front  rank  at 
the  fat-stock  shows,  it  is  believed  that  the  breed  combines 
the  several  desirable  traits  as  well  at  least  as  any  other,  and 
with  them  the  equally  essential  qualities  of  hardiness,  do- 
cility, and  a  hornless  head.  As  an  illustration  of  the  points 
named,  and  a  proof  of  their  possible  combination,  the  cow 
No.  2213,  Gleaner,  V,  g,  is  credited  in  1894,  according  to 
the  accepted  record  of  the  owner,  with  a  yield  of  14,189  lbs. 
of  milk,  an  average  of  38. 86  lbs.  a  day  for  the  entire  year. 
The  cow  was  then  twelve  years  old,  and  was  milking  with 
her  tenth  calf  (or  tenth  calving,  as  one  or  more  of  them 
produced  twins). 

Among  these  is  a  pair  of  twins  (Freemartins),  shown 
as  fat  stock,  at  Norwich  and  London,  England.  The  steer 
(ist  and  cup  at  Norfolk  and  ist  at  Smithfield")  weighed  at 
I  year  5|  months  old,  1238  lbs.,  and  when  shown  again, 
at  2  years  6  months  old,  had  a  live  weight  of  1735  lbs.,  a 
gain  in  a  few  days  over  a  year  of  497  lbs.,  and  a  gain 
from  birth  of  about  2.12  lbs.  a  day.  The  heifer,  twin  to 
above  (ist  and  reserve  for  cup  at  Norfolk  and  ist  and 
reserve  for  cup  at  Smithfield),  had  a  live  weight  when 
shown  (2  years  6  months' old)  of  1452  lbs,,  a  gain  from  birth 
of  nearly  1.8  lbs.  a  day. 


DAIRY  COWS.  201 

An  illustration  nearer  home  is  reported  by  Dr.  J.  R. 
Slingerland,  Trustee  of  the  Shaker  Society  at  Union  Vil- 
lage, O.  In  January,  1895,  he  bought  35  head  of  Shorthorn 
steers,  coming  2  years  old,  for  feeding.  At  the  same  time 
they  had  18  head,  the  same  age,  of  their  own  breeding,  the 
produce  of  a  Red  Polled  bull  on  Shorthorn  cows.  At  the 
time  named  the  full-blood  Shorthorns  averaged  940  lbs.  in 
weight,  and  the  cross-breds  790  lbs.  All  were  pastured  the 
summer  of  1895,  fed  out  in  the  late  fall,  and  sold  to  the 
same  buyer  on  the  same  day  in  January,  1896. 

The  full-blood  steers  consumed  an  average  of  85  bushels 
of  corn,  besides  hay  and  corn-fodder,  in  fatting,  and  weighed 
v/hen  sold  an  average  of  1540  lbs.  each — a  gain  of  600  lbs. 
in  the  year.  They  sold  for  $4  a  hundred.  The  polled  cross- 
breds  consumed  an  average  of  50  bushels  of  corn,  with 
corn-fodder  only  for  roughage,  and  weighed  when  sold  an 
average  of  1492  lbs. — a  gain  in  the  year  of  702  lbs.  They 
sold  for  $4.25  a  hundred. 

The  Red  Polled  bull,  Osman  1251,  used  in  producing  the 
cross-bred  steers  in  this  trial,  is  the  son  of  a  full  sister  to 
Eleanor,  and  is  the  sire  of  many  fine  dairy  cows. 

In  appearance  the  Red  Polls  greatly  resemble  Devons, 
save  the  horns,  and  except  that  they  are  somewhat  larger, 
and  the  cows,  as  a  rule,  are  better  milkers.  They  have  the 
same  rich  color,  fine  bone,  round,  smooth,  compact  form, 
free  from  prominent  points,  and  the  same  muscular  habit 
and  active  disposition  ;  and  their  meat  is  of  the  same  fine- 
grained, juicy  character. 

Milking  Qualities. — The  modern  Red  Polled  cow  does  not 
milk  so  largely  as  the  old  Suffolk,  but  her  milk  is  of  better 
quality.  Sixty  pounds  a  day,  which  Youatt  says  in  his  time 
was  not  unusual,  is  now,  I  think,  somewhat  rare.  Four 
and  a  half  to  five  gallons  a  day,  or  say  40  to  45  lbs.,  is  a 
good  yield  from  a  mature  cow  in  the  flush  of  the  season. 
But  she  will  easily  give,  with  proper  care,  6000  to  8000  lbs. 
in  a  year,  and  some  will  considerably  exceed  this.  In  the 
report  of  English  herds,  published  in  the  Red  Polled  Herd 
Book,  the  average  yields  of  mature  cows  in  the  best  herds 
is  from  5000  to  over  7000  lbs.   a  year.     In  Lord  Rothchild's 


202  DAIRYING. 

herd,  22  cows,  seven  milking  with  first  or  second  calf,  gave 
in  1895  an  average  of  7744^  lbs.  of  milk  each.  In  my  own 
little  herd  the  mature  cows  will  average  over  6000  lbs.  of 
milk  a  year  and  4  per  cent  of  fat. 

Beef  Qualities. — In  this  line,  so  far,  we  are  entirely  de- 
pendent for  facts  on  the  English  records.  No  full-blood 
steers  of  the  breed  have  as  yet  been  shown  in  .this  country. 
A  few  samples  will  suffice.  At  the  Smithfield  Club  Show  in 
1889,  two  Red  Polled  steers,  two  years  old,  showed  the 
largest  daily  gain  of  anything  on  exhibition  that  old — 2.1S 
lbs.  and  2.29  lbs.,  respectively.  At  the  Smithfield  Club 
Show  of  1890  a  Red  Polled  steer  dressed  the  highest  per 
cent  of  his  live  weight  of  any  animal  slaughtered — 73.72 
per  cent.  This,  according  to  the  London  Live  Stock  Journal, 
has  only  once  been  exceeded  in  England — by  a  cross-bred 
steer,  which  dressed  74  per  cent  of  his  live  weight. 

At  the  fat-stock  shows  in  England  in  1894  the  following 
live  weights  were  recorded  :  A  steer  i  year  io|  months, 
1374  lbs.,  and  a  year  later  1702  lbs.  ;  a  steer  i  year  loj 
months,  1323  lbs.;  a  steer  i  year  io|  months,  1208  lbs.,  and 
a  year  later  1656  lbs.  ;  a  steer  i  year  9  months,  1250  lbs.,  a 
year  later  1728  lbs.,  and  at  3  years  9  months  2112  lbs. 

Mature  Red  Polled  cows,  in  breeding  condition,  should 
weigh  1200  to  1400  lbs.,  and  bulls  1800  to  2000  lbs.  A  few 
will  greatly  exceed  these  weights,  but  many,  as  now  bred, 
are  smaller.  These,  however,  are  about  the  weights  at- 
tained in  the  best  herds. 

VII.  Devon  Cattle. 

By  L.  P.  SissoN,  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  Secretary  American  Devon  Cattle  Club. 

The  Devon  breed  of  cattle  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the 
English  cattle.  Their  native  home  is  on  the  highlands  of 
Devonshire,  in  southwestern  England.  Our  records  show 
that  in  the  year  1800  Messrs.  Winthrop  &  Davenport  im- 
ported Devons  into  Plymouth,  Mass. ;  in  1805  General  Eaton 
imported  some  into  Otsego  county.  New  York;  in  1817  Mr. 
George  Patterson  came  into  possession  of  some  Devons, 
brought  over  by  T.  W.  Coke,  who  presented  them  to  a 


DAIRY   COWS.  S05 

brother  of  George  Patterson;  these  afterward  were  the 
foundation  of  the  above-mentioned  herd  (George  Patter- 
son of  Sykesville,  Md.).  These  and  other  animals  im- 
ported by  Mr.  Patterson,  our  records  show,  were  all  brought 
from  Devonshire,  and  from  the  best  that  could  be  found 
there. 

Others  were  imported  into  New  York  State;  among  im- 
porters whom  we  might  mention  are  John  Cowlin  of  Trux- 
ton,  N.  J.;  L.  F.  Allen,  Miles  Vernon,  A.  Becket,  W.  P. 
&  C.  S.  Wainwright,  Col.  L.  G.  Morris,  D.  W.  Catlin,  W. 
R.  Sanford,  J.  Howard  McHenry  of  Pikesville,  Md.;  C.  P. 
Halcomb  of  Delaware,  and  others.  Later  importations  are 
by  James  Murray  of  Virginia,  R.  W.  Cameron  of  New 
York,  Frank  Brown  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  still  later  John 
Hudson,  Moweaqua,  111.,  Dr.  J.  Cheston  Morris,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  and  A.  S.  Worden,  Ulysses,  Pa. 

As  to  the  beef  qualities  of  the  Devons  one  only  has  to 
turn  to  the  records  of  the  markets  of  the  country  to  see 
that  they  are  among  the  leading  beefers,  bringing  the  top 
prices  at  all  times.  As  to  milk  and  butter  production  from 
Devons,  it  will  be  found  from  records  that  they  produce 
from  12  to  25  lbs.  of  butter  per  week.  Mr.  A.  E.  Baker,  of 
Wisconsin,  says  his  cows  average  him  365  lbs.  of  butter 
per  cow  for  the  year,  which  is  about  as  much  as  any  breed 
will  do  on  farmers'  feed  and  care.  Dr.  J.  Cheston  Morris 
says,  in  regard  to  Devons  for  milk:  "  A  herd  of  Devons  may 
be  relied  upon  to  give  an  annual  yield  of  2000  quarts  of 
milk  from  each  cow;  the  length  of  the  period  averages  be- 
tween 10  and  II  months,  though  single  cows  will  continue 
in  profit  from  13  to  14  months.  An  average  yield  of  seven 
quarts  daily  from  each  cow  may  therefore  be  expected, 
and  an  examination  of  milk  records  of  Devon  herds  will 
show  that  they  are  remarkably  uniform  in  their  yields. 
As  comparatively  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  their 
milking  qualities,  a  large  improvement  may  be  looked  for 
by  proper  selection  and  breeding.  As  my  animals  weigh 
only  700  lbs.  each,  it  follows  that  each  cow  has  given  be- 
tween five  and  six  times  her  own  weight  in  milk  during 
the    course    of   the    year,    besides    maintaining    her    own 


204  DAIRYING. 

weight,  and  producing  healthy  offspring.  This  I  consider 
a  physiological  fact  well  worthy  of  notice,  and  very 
creditable  to  the  '  little  red  cow.'  Of  course  the  same 
nutritive  power  applied  in  other  directions  would  give 
beef-producing  results,  such  as  we  all  know  of." 

Devon  cattle  are  active  and  very  hardy,  qualities  that 
make  them  especially  valuable  in  dry  or  mountainous  re- 
gions. The  bulls  are  quite  intelligent  and  active,  and  are 
not  as  liable  to  be  cross  as  some  other  breeds;  they  weigh 
from  1800  to  2000  lbs.  at  three  to  four  years  old.  The  cows 
have  strong  vital  organs,  and  large  digestive  and  assimi- 
lating powers.  Their  udders  are  not  large  for  the  amount 
of  milk  they  give,  with  good  elastic  teats,  seldom  sore. 
The  milk  is  of  good  quality,  either  as  food  for  infants  and 
invalids,  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  or  cheese,  or  for 
market  delivery;  it  does  not  churn  in  the  cans,  nor  look 
blue  in  the  bottle. 

Devons  will  pay  their  way  at  the  dairy  as  well  as  in  the 
feeder's  stable;  they  wnll  keep  in  good  condition,  and  look 
plump  and  sleek  on  pasture  that  other  breeds  can  hardly 
live  on;  they  are  easy  keepers,  good  producers  of  the  finest 
kind  of  milk,  and  also  make  the  very  best  quality  of  beef. 

VIII.  Dutch  Belted  Cattle. 

By  H.  B.  Richards,  Easton,  Penna.,  Secretary  Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Asso- 
ciation of  America. 

Dutch  belted  cattle  are  natives  of  Holland,  and  originated 
in  that  country  during  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the 
cattle  interests  of  Holland  were  in  the  most  thrifty  condi- 
tion; in  fact,  it  was  the  chief  industry  of  the  country.  At 
that  time  breeding  had  been  developed  to  a  science,  and 
cattle  of  remarkable  contrast  of  color  were  bred  whose 
foundation  color  was  black,  with  a  broad  white  band 
around  the  centre  of  the  body,  a  white  head,  a  black  ring 
around  each  eye,  and  a  full  white  tail.  Wonderful  and 
remarkable  as  it  may  appear,  a  feat  was  accomplished 
during  that  period  that  would  defy  our  modern  breeders 
and  can  be  safely  classified  as  a  lost  art. 

Dutch  belted  cattle  became  a  classified  breed  and  were 


DAIRY   COWS.  205 

bred  to  a  remarkably  high  standard.  For  several  centuries 
they  were  owned  and  controlled  by  the  nobility  keeping 
them  pure  and  limiting  their  number  to  their  ownership. 
They  were  first  imported  into  this  country  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  present  century,  the  importers  procuring  the 
finest  herds  in  Holland;  the  herds  in  the  United  States 
to-day  are  purely  of  American  breeding. 

The  American  Association  have  adopted  as  their  standard 
of  color  a  pure  black,  with  a  continuous  white  belt  around 
their  body,  beginning  behind  the  shoulders  and  extending 
nearly  to  the  hips;  this  sharp  contrast  of  colors  makes  a 
beautiful  and  imposing  contrast  and  a  most  beautiful 
sight;  when  seen  in  number  grazing  on  the  green,  they  are 
admired  by  all,  even  if  not  interested  in  cattle  or  farm- 
ing. This  belt  is  almost  invariably  reproduced,  and  is 
so  perfectly  fixed  that  it  will  crop  out  in  their  grades  for 
many  generations,  even  against  cold  strains  of  blood;  the 
potency  of  this  feature  is  very  striking,  as  the  belt  is  often 
reproduced  after  the  foundation  color  is  lost;  and  grades 
of  any  foundation  color  can  be  produced  to  an  unlimited 
extent. 

Their  form  is  a  strong  characterized  dairy  type,  medium 
size,  and  possessing  all  the  qualifications  of  an  ideal  dairy 
animal.  They  are  strictly  a  dairy  breed,  and  are  large  and 
persistent  milkers;  strong  constitutions,  peaceable  and 
quiet  dispositions  of  a  very  compact  form.  Cows  range 
from  eight  to  twelve  hundred,  and  bulls  reach  eighteen 
to  twenty  hundred.  The  late  P.  T.  Barnum,  the  showman 
of  national  fame,  said:  "They  struck  my  lancy  in  Holland 
about  1S50;  I  imported  a  few,  and  then  found  their  unique 
and  novel  appearance  not  their  only  quality,  for  they 
proved  to  be  wonderful  milkers,  far  superior  to  any  other 
cattle  to  which  my  attention  has  been  drawn." 

Nearly  all  the  herds  now  in  the  Uniied  States  are  owned 
in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Massachusetts,  with  a 
few  scattering  South  and  West.  A  herd  of  eighteen  were 
exhibited  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago, 
where  they  attracted  great  attention  and  were  admired  by 
thousands  who  had  never  beard  of  such  novel  ana  beautiK: 


206  DAIRYING. 

cattle  before.  This  herd  was  sold  and  exported  to  a  wealthy 
resident  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  where  they  are  now  kept 
and  are  doing  well  in  that  congenial  climate.  There  is  an 
association  of  breeders  of  these  cattle  known  as  the  Dutch 
Belted  Cattle  Association  of  America,  who  have  adopted  a 
high  standard  of  excellence,  requiring  breeders  to  breed 
typical  animals  of  correct  markings,  thereby  gaining 
uniformity  and  correctness  of  type.  The  association  issues 
a  herd-book,_of  which  vol.  4,  of  recent  issue,  is  the  last 
number. 

IX.   Brown-Swiss  Cattle. 

By  N.  S.  Fish,  Groton,  Conn.,  Secretary  Brown-Swiss  Cattle  Breeders' 
Association. 

Brown-Swiss  cattle  were  first  imported  into  this  coun- 
try by  Mr.  Henry  M.  Clarke  of  Belmont,  Mas"^.,  in  1869. 
He  imported  seven  cows  and  one  bull;  since  then  there 
have  been  several  importations.  Most  of  the  animals 
have  come  from  the  famed  Canton  of  Schwyz,  and  the 
adjacent  Cantons  of  Zug,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden.  The  Rigi 
mountains,  covered  to  their  tops  with  fine,  rich  herbage,  lie 
here,  and  some  of  the  finest  breeds  of  cattle  in  the  whole 
country  are  here  produced,  the  cattle  grazing  in  the  valley 
in  winter  and  on  the  mountains  in  summer. 

The  United  States  consul  at  Zurich  in  i8S2made  a  report 
to  our  government  of  the  cattle  and  dairy  interest  of 
Switzerland.  He  w^rites:  "  For  a  hundred  years  Switzer- 
land has  been  famous  for  the  production  of  its  dairies.  At 
the  cattle  show  of  Paris,  1878,  every  Swiss  cow  exhibited 
bore  away  a  prize  in  competition  with  exhibits  from  Hol- 
land, England,  Denmark,  and  other  famous  cattle  countries. 

The  Brown-Swiss  cattle  are  fed  on  grass  or  hay  only 
the  year  through.  A  fair  average  for  cows  in  Canton 
Zurich  is  ten  quarts  of  milk  per  day  the  milking-year 
through;  in  Schwyz  and  Zug  the  average  is  but  little 
less." 

The  consul  of  St.  Gall  says:  "When  a  farmer  in  Ger- 
many,   Italy,  or  France  wishes  to  improve   his  breed,   he 


DAIRY   COWS.  207 

makes  a  selection  from  Swiss  herds  as  the  healthiest  and 
hardiest  known  to  the  herd-book.  .  .  .  Tne  Brown- 
Swiss  is  considered  the  dairy  breed  /<zr  excellence  of  Swit- 
zerland; it  not  only  gives  more  milk,  but  this  is  richer 
than  any  other  European  breed  of  cattle." 

Marked  Chai'acteristics. — Size  large;  form  firm;  color 
shades  from  dark  to  light  chestnut  brown.  The  tuft  of 
hair  between  the  horns,  on  the  inside  of  ear,  and  a  narrow 
line  along  the  back  generally  light.  Horns  rather  short, 
waxey,  with  black  tips.  Nose  black,  with  mealy-colored 
band  surrounding  nose.  Switch,  hoofs,  and  tongue  black. 
Straight  hind  legs,  wide  thighs,  and  heavy  quarters.  The 
cows  often  weigh  1600  lbs.,  bulls  2000  lbs.  Calves  large, 
some  weighing  no  lbs.  when  dropped.  They  mature  fast, 
have  healthy  constitutions,  yielding  generous  returns  for 
whatever  care,  time,  labor,  or  money  is  expended  on  them. 

A  cow  shown  at  the  Chicago  Fat  Stock  Show  in  November, 
1891,  gave  in  three  days  245  lbs.  of  milk,  showing 9.32lbs.  of 
butter-fat  by  the  Babcock  test,  yielding  during  one  day  of 
the  test  3^  lbs.  of  fat,  the  largest  amount  of  butter-fat  ever 
shown  at  an  official  test  of  any  cow  of  any  breed  up  to  that 
time.  The  cow  Muotta  calved  about  November  i,  1893, 
and  in  February,  1894,  gave  67  lbs.  of  milk  in  one  day. 

The  milk  of  Brown-Swiss  cows  has  a  sweet  flavor  which 
is  very  noticeable,  and  makes  it  very  desirable  for  family 
use.  With  good  farm  care  the  cows  give  under  favorable 
circumstances  from  20  to  25  quarts  of  milk  per  day.  They 
make  the  finest  of  beef  and  veal;  when  intenaed  to  be 
used  for  working  oxen,  they  are  easily  broken  and  are  fast 
walkers. 

The  cows  are  persistent  milkers,  with  good  teats;  where 
used  to  produce  grade  animals  they  give  the  best  of  sat- 
isfaction, with  the  Swiss  characteristics  predominating. 
There  are  now  about  1800  recorded  animals  in  this  country, 
located  in  almost  every  State,  and  some  in  Mexico. 


208  DAIRYING. 

YIELD    OF    MILK   AND   FAT  FROM  DAIRY  COWS. 

A  good  dairy  cow  should  give  at  least  5000  pounds  ol 
milk  during  a  whole  period  of  lactation.  As  the  quality  01 
milk  given  by  different  cows  varies  greatly,  however,  as 
will  be  apparent  from  the  tables  given  in  the  following,  the 
yield  of  fat  produced  during  a  lactation  period  is  a  better 
standard  to  go  by  than  that  of  the  milk;  three-fourths  of  a 
pound  of  tat  per  day  for  an  average  of  300  days  may  be  con- 
sidered a  good  yield  (total  225  pounds).  Many  dairy  farmers 
aim  to  have  all  mature  cows  in  their  herds  produce  a  pound 
of  fat,  on  the  average,  for  every  day  in  the  year.  To  do 
this,  a  cow  whose  milk  tests  about  4  per  cent,  must  give  25 
pounds  of  milk  a  day  (3  gallons)  as  an  average  for  the 
whole  year;  a  cow  producing  3  per  cent  milk  must  give  33^ 
pounds  of  milk  daily,  and  one  producing  5  per  cent  milk 
must  yield  20  pounds  of  milk  daily,  on  the  average,  etc. 

The  flow  of  milk  is  usually  at  its  highest  shortly  after 
calving,  and  then  gradually  decreases,  the  rate  of  decrease 
being  determined  by  the  inbred  milking  qualities  of  the 
cow  and  the  system  of  feeding  practised.  The  average  de- 
crease in  milk  yield  for  good  dairy  cows  on  good  feed  is 
from  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  a  pound  per  head  per  ten 
days.  Where  cows  are  not  fed  liberally  and  receive  but  lit- 
tle concentrated  feed,  the  decrease  will  be  more  marked, 
and  often  exceed  one  pound  of  milk  per  head  per  ten  days. 
The  decrease  is  more  marked  during  the  latter  stages  of 
the  period  of  lactation  than  in  the  earlier  ones,  and  is  also 
more  marked  in  cows  with  poorly  developed  milking  qual- 
ities than  in  good  dairy  cows.  A  cow  is  considered  at  her 
best  when  from  five  to  seven  years  old;  the  constitutional 
strength  of  the  animal,  the  system  of  feeding  practised, 
and  the  general  treatment  given  the  cow  will  determine 
her  period  of  usefulness. 

The  quality  of  the  milk  produced  by  individual  cows 
generally  remains  fairly  uniform  through  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  lactation  period,  and  is  not  permanently  influ- 
enced in  any  marked  manner  by  feed  or  any  external 
conditions.     During  the  last  couple  of  months,  when  the 


DAIRY   COWS. 


209 


yield  of  milk  is  decreasing  more  rapidly  than  before,  the 
quality  is  generally  improved  to  some  extent,  the  variation 
being,  as  a  rule,  within  i  per  cent.  Variations  of  several 
per  cents  of  fat  may  sometimes  occur  from  day  to  day,  or 
milking  to  milking,  in  the  milk  from  single  cows;  variations 
amounting  to  I  per  cent  are  common.  Herd  milk  varies 
much  less,  the  percentages  of  fat  on  subsequent  days  being 
as  a  rule  within  two  tenths  of  one  per  cent,  and  only  excep- 
tionally near  one  per  cent. 

RESULTS    OP    TESTS    OF    DAIRY    BREEDS 

Conducted  by  American  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations. 


Breed. 


New  York 

(Geneva): 

Jersey     

Guernsey 

Holstein  

Ayrshire 

Short  Horn 

Devon    

American   Hoi- 

derness 

Maine: 

Jersey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

New  Jersey: 

Jersey 

Guernsey   

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Short  Horn . . . 


Average 

Yields  per 

Lactation 

Period. 


Milk.    Fat 


lbs. 

5045 
5385 
7918 
6824 
6055 
3984 

5721 

5460 
8369 
6612 


3  7695 

4  i  7446 

3  I  8455 

4  7461 
3  ,10457 


lbs. 

282.1 
285  5 
266.1 
244.8 
269.0 
183.3 


297 
285 
233-0 

376.3 
379-0 
300.2 

275-3 
396.3 


5.60 
5  30 
3-36 
3.60 
4.44 
4.60 


5-5° 
3-47 
3-67 


4- 
5-09 

3-55 
3-69 
3-79 


Average  Cost  of 


Food 

Eaten 

per  Day. 


cents 

12.4 
12.5 
13-9 
13-5 
12.7 
10.3 

12.2 

16.2 
19.5 
17. 1 

16. 1 
14.9 

19-3 
15.0 

15-4 


Produc- 
ing  TOO 

lbs.  Milk. 


1 13.0 
85.2 
94-9 

87.1 
78.1 
79-3 
76.0 
79.2 


Produc- 
ing I  lb. 
Fat. 


cents 

16. 1 
16.1 
19. 1 
20.2 
17.2 
20.5 

20.1 

20.4 
25a 
26.8 

17.9 

15-3 
22.4 
20.6 
20.6 


A-vernges  for  all  Breeds  and  Lactation  Periods. 


Jersey     

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Short  Horn 

Devon  

American        Hol- 
derness  


Total 


9 

18 

5579 

301. 1 

5-40 

8 

10 

6210 

322.9 

S.20 

9 

10 

8215 

282.0 

3.43 

10 

20 

6909 

248.5 

3  60 

4 

5 

8696 

345-4 

3-97 

3 

5 

3984 

183-3 

4.60 

2 

4 

5721 

213. 1 

3.73 

45 

72 

13-9 
13-5 
17.2 
145 
14-3 
10.3 


94-7 
82.8 
74-7 
78.5 
78.7 
94.0 

76.0 


17.4 
15-8 
21.5 
21. S 
19.4 
20.5 

20.1 


210  DAIRYING. 

The  animals  included  in  the  foregoing  breed  tests  rank 
on  the  average  as  follows: 

1.  As  to  yield  of  fat:  Shorthorn,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  Hol- 
stein,  Ayrshire,  American  Holderness,  Devon. 

2.  As  to  cost  of  producing  i  lb,  of  fat:  Guernsey,  Jersey, 
Shorthorn,  American  Holderness,  Devon,  Holstein  and 
Ayrshire. 

3.  As  to  yield  of  7/iilk:  Shorthorn,  Holstein,  Ayrshire, 
Guernsey,  Americz^n  Holderness,  Jersey,  Devon. 

4.  As  to  cost  of  froduciug  100  ll>s.  of  tnilk:  Holstein, 
American  Holderness,  Ayrshire,  Shorthorn,  Guernsey, 
Devon,   Jersey. 

5.  As  to  cost  of  food:  Devon,  American  Holderness, 
Guernsey,  Jersey,  Shorthorn,  Ayrshire,  Holstein. 

6.  As  to  richness  of  milk:  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Devon,  Short- 
horn, American  Holderness,  Ayrshire,  Holstein. 

RESULTS    OF   BREED    TESTS   CONDUCTED   AT 
WORLD'S  COLU3IBL^N   EXPOSITION,  '  1893. 

A.  Breed  Tesi  No.  I  (Cheese  Test),  May  10  to  25. 
Milk  Fat  Price  of 

Pro-         Pro-     Cheese,    Cheese        Cost 
duced,     duced,       'bs.        per  lb.,  of  Net 

lbs.  lbs.  cents.        Feed.        Gain. 

25  Jerseys 13,296.4      60191      1451.8        13.36        $98.14      $119.82 

25  Guernseys 10,938.6      488.42      1130.6        11.95  76.25  88.30 

25Short-horns 12,186.9      436.60      1077.6        13.00  99-36  81.36 

B.  Breed  Test  No.  2  (Ninety-day  Butter  Test),  June  i  to  Aug.  29. 

Butter  Price  of 
credited  Butter. 

25  Jerseys.. 73,488.8     3516.08     4274.01     §i747'37     $587-50    $1323-81 

25  Guernseys 61,781.7    2784.56    3360.43       1355-44       484.14        997.64 

24  Shoit-horns 66,263.2    2409.97    2890.87       1171.77       501.79        910.12 

Averages  per  day  per  cow. 

Fat,  Cost  of 

per  cent.  Food. 

Jerseys    32.7  1.56  4.78  26.1  cts. 

Guernseys   27.5  1.24  4.51  21.5    " 

Short-horns..     ....  30.7  1.12  3.64  23.2    " 

C.  Breed  Test  No.  3  (Thirty-day  Butter  Test),  Aug.  29  to  Sept.  28. 

Butter    Price  of 
credited   Butter. 

15  Jerseys 13,921.9      685.81       837.21       $385.59    $111.24      $274-13 

15  Guernseys 131518.4       59706       724.17         329-77         92-77         237.00 

15  Short-horns 15. 618. 3      555.43      662.67         303.69       104.55         198.89 

D.  Breed  Test  No.  4  (Heifer  Test),  Sept  30  to  Oct.  20. 

7  Jerseys 3356.6       155-38       i94-23        $77-69     $34-44  $56.28 

^Short-horns 2581.0        97.89      122.36  48.95       23.53  47-49 


DAIRY   COWS. 


211 


AVERAGE  YIELDS  OF  MILK  AND  FAT  BY  PRE- 
MIUM COWS  AT  RECENT  STATE  FAIRS. 


New  York. 

Maine. 
Mass. 
Ohio. 

Indiana. 

Illinois. 


Wisconsin. 

Iowa. 

Nebraska. 
California. 

Canada. 

Toronto. 

Guelph. 

(iananoque 


Name  of  Cow. 


Intze    Von      Hol- 
lingen 

Weston  Lily 

Very  Much 

Lady  of  Lyons  6th 

Nahe  2d 

Cows  over  3  yrs. 

old. 
Beulah  Shawlan... 
Cows   tender  ^yrs. 

old. 

Kitty  King- 

Johanna  5th 

Daisy  

Eurodna 

Geertje  Lefing 

Lady  Woods   

Typha 

Eunice  Clay 

Calamity  Jane 

Carmen  Sylva.   . . . 


Breed. 


Holstein 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Jersey 

Holstein 


Jersey 


Holstein 
Jersey 

Holstein 
Jersey 
Holstein 


Milk. 

Fat. 

Fat. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

p.c. 

S8.SS 

1. 691 

2 

8q 

48.68 

2.190 

4 

50 

43-50 

2.150 

4 

94 

44.75 

2.060 

4 

62 

72.86 

2. lie 

2 

90 

47.00 

1.553 

330 

37-43 

1-585 

4-33 

2g.6o 

1.485 

S.02 

83-95 

2.500 

2.98 

40.15 

2.420 

5.95 

40.12 

T.597 

4.07 

50-31 

1.510 

^.00 

38.58 

2.626 

6.74 

49-73 

1-544 

3.10 

65.00 

1.590 

2.45 

6q.i8 

2.090 

316 

6g.oo 

1. 914 

80 

Test  made  at 


Fair  grounds. 
Home. 

Fair  grounds. 


Home. 

Fair  grounds. 


HIGHEST  RECORD  FOR   YIELD   OF   FAT 

During    Twenty-four   Hours   Made   by   any   Cow   in    a 
Public  Test. 


At  a  Fair. 

A  t  Home. 

Brienz,  Brown-Swiss,  n  years  old, 

Ma^lecro/t  Maid,  No.  35907  H.-F. 

weighing  1395  lbs. 

H.  B.,  5  years  4  months  old. 

Average    daily  yield  of 

Yield  of  milk 76.0    lbs. 

milk.   ..         81.7    lbs. 

"        "  fat         .                  -J  86«  " 

Average   daily    yield    of 

Average  per  cent  of  fat 

fat 3. II    " 

in  day's  milk 5.1JS 

Average  per  cent  of  fat 
in  day's  milk 3.81^ 

(7-day  test,   May  21-27,  1899,  con- 
ducted under   the  supervision  of 

(American  Dairy  Show.  Chicago, 

the   Cornell    Exp.   Station;    total 

1891;  3-day  test.) 

yield   for  the  week,  496.5   lbs.  of 

milk  and  16.825   lbs.  of  fat;  aver. 

per  cent  of  fat  in  milk,  3.39$^.) 

212 


DAIRYING. 


OFFICIAL    MILK   AND    BUTTER   RECORDS. 


A.    Milk  Records. 
Holsteiti-Friesian  : 

Yentje  Netherland,  No.  1332  Ad.  Reg... 
Rosa  Bonheur  5th,  No,  11227  H.-F.  K.  B. 

Rosa  Bonheur  5th 

Guernsey  : 

Lily  of  Alexander,  No  1059  

Ayrshire  : 

Alice  Douglas,  No,  4398 

B.    Butter  Records.* 
I.  Holstein-Friesian  : 

Rosa  Bonheur  5th 

Netherl'd  Hengerveld,  No.]i33  Ad.Reg. 

Maplecroft  Maid,  No.  1352  Ad.  Reg 

II.  Jersey  : 

Bisson's  Belle,  No.  31144  

Princess  2d,  No.  8046 

III.  Guernsey  : 

Imp.  Bretonne,  No.  3660 

Royalette,  No.  3299 

Lucille,  No.  115 

IV.  Ayrs/t  ire  : 

Lady  Fox,  No.  9669. . . . . 

Duchess  of  Smithfield,  No,  4256 


II. 
Ill, 


Days. 


lbs, 
20,232 


12,617 

527-3+ 


1,028H|  X 


624 


Days, 


lbs. 


726^ 


24,9 


46|-2§ 


19l5 


24 
Hours. 


lbs. 


106% 


3/a 


*  Butter  fat  increased  by  one  sixth  in  case  of  all  breeds  except  the  Jerseys, 
+  For  10  months  11  days,  %  From  8,412/5  lbs,  of  milk, 

§  From  299>^  lbs.  of  milk. 

RESULTS   OF   ENGLISH   MILKING   TRIALS. 

(Averages  of  breed-tests  conducted  at  the  annual  dairy  shows  of  the  Brit- 
ish Dairy  Farmers'  Assoc,  1879-98,  inclusive,) 


^.^ 

Breed, 

Aver- 
age 
Yield  of 

Milk 
per 

Day, 

Total  Solids, 

Fat. 

Solids 
not 
Fat, 
Per 

Cent. 

Yield 
Day. 

Per 

Cent 

Yield 
Day, 

Per 

Cent. 

Live 
Weight. 

236 

272 

98 

10 

32 

Shorthorns 

Jerseys         , ,  .   . 

lbs, 
45-4 
28,9 
30.6 
45-2 
42,2 
30-1 
41,9 
46.0 
60.3 

27.1 
53-1 

lbs. 
5-77 
4,18 
413 
5-53 
5.61 
4-32 
5-26 
5.86 
8.29 

3-62 
7.07 

12,72 
14,46 
13-50 
12.25 
13,29 
14-34 
12.55 
12,74 
13-74 

13-36 
13.31 

lbs. 
1.70 
1.44 
1.41 
1-54 
1.77 
1.48 
1-54 
1,91 
3.0I 

1.18 
2.07 

3-75 
4.98 
4.61 
3-41 
4.19 

4.16 

4-99 

4-13 
3.90 

8.97 
9.48 
8.89 
8.84 
9.10 
9-44 
8.87 
8,58 
3.75 

9.23 
9.41 

lbs. 
1405(117)* 
856(157) 
1026  (49) 
1383  (3) 
1046  (21) 

Guernseys 

Holsteins  (Dutch) 
Ayrshires   

35 

Red  Polls   

Welsh 

1162  (32) 

Aberdeen  Angus. 
Kerries  and  Dex- 
ter Kerries 

Crosses  

4; 

54 

785 

787  (41) 
1230  (38) 

*  Average  for  117  animals. 


DAIKY    COWS. 


213 


ENGLISH    STANDARDS    FOR    ANNUAL   YIELD   OF 
MILK   OF   THE    VARIOUS    BREEDS. 

The  stanc^ards  proposed  for  the  respective  breeds  by  the 
British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association  for  entry  in  the  "  Dairy 
Cattle  Register"  are  as  under: 

Weight  of  Milk  in  Pure  Butter  Fat  per 

the  Milking  Period  Day  (average  of  two 

(not  exceeding  n  tests  as  determined 
Pedigree  and  Non-Pedigree.               months).  by  analysis), 

lbs.  lbs. 

Short-horn 8500  1.25 

Jersey 6000  1.25 

Guernsey 6000  1.25 

Ayrshire 7500  i.oo 

Red  Polled 7000  i.oo 

Kerry  and  Dexter  Kerry..  4500  0.75 

Dutch  (Holstein) 8500  i.oo 

The  standard  for  crosses  of  either  of  the  above  will  be 
the  mean  of  the  standards  for  the  pure  breeds.  No  animal 
is  admitted  whose  milk  contains  less  than  12  per  cent  of 
solids  at  any  test.     (McConnell.) 

AVERAGE   YIELDS   AND  COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 
OF   DIFFERENT   BREEDS.     (Hucho.) 


Breed. 

Live 

Wt., 
Lbs. 

Annual 
Yield. 

Average  Per  Cent. 

Per  1000  lbs. 
Live  Wt. 

Milk, 
lbs. 

Fat, 
lbs. 

Solids. 

Fat. 

Solids 
not 
Fat. 

9- 
9.2 
8.2 
9-7 
8.8 

11 
8.7 

Milk, 
lbs. 

Fat, 
lbs. 

Short-horn 

Brown  Swiss... 

Holstein 

Guernsey    

Ayshire 

Jersey 

1300 
1300 
1 100 
1050 
1000 
900 
900 
550 

6800 
7300 
7700 
6600 
6600 
6600 
6600 
5000 

260 
275 
230 
330 
245 
300 
240 
190 

12.9 
13.0 
11  8 
14.7 
12.5 
14.7 
12.0 
12.5 

3-8 
3-0 
5-0 
3-7 

ft 

5200 
5600 
7000 
6300 
6600 
67C0 
7300 
9cx)0 

200 
210 

210 
310 
245 
330 
270 
350 

Kerry 

S14 


DAIRYING. 


AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITIOX  OF  31ILK 
FROM    DIFFERENT    BREEDS.    (Konig.) 


in  — 


Name  of  Breed. 


Steyer  (Austrian) 

Simmenthal  (Swiss) . . . 
Tillerthal  (Tyrolean).. 
Vorarlberg  (Austrian). 

Algau  (Bavarian) 

Bohemian 

Holstein 

Oldenburg  (German). . 

Angler  (Danish) 

Short-horn 

Devon 

Ayrshire 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

French 

Scandinavian 


86.90 
87  26 
87.43 


CIS 


4.17 

3-79 
3  70 
3-54 
3.20 
5  06 
325 
3.38 
3.12 
3-47 
4-44 
3-58 
4-32 
5" 
3-9° 
3-51 


324 
2.64 

3  07 
2.91 
3.22 
3-67 
3-99 
3.1Q 

3.21 

3-42 
3-34 
398 
3-07 
2.76 


5-43 

5-43 
5  70 
4.38 
5.06 
4-97 


(?) 


12.74  8 
12.578 
12.62 

12. T2 

I4.CXD 
11.96 
12.05 
11.85 
12.80 

13  43 

1307 

14. 10 

14.6 

12.80 

12.00 


METHODS  OF  JUDGING  THE  VALUE  OF  DAIRY 
COWS. 

The  British  Dairy  Partners'  Association,  which  has  con- 
ducted tests  of  dairy  cows  at  their  annual  fair  for  the  last 
twenty  years,  has  during  late  years  scored  the  dairy  cows 
competing  for  premiums  according  to  the  following  scale  : 

I  point  for  each  pound  of  milk; 
20  points  for  each  pound  of  fat; 

4  points  for  each  pound  of  solids  not  fat.  ] 

I  point  for  each  ten  days  in  milk  after  the  first  twenty 
days  (limit  200  days). 
10  points  are  deducted  from  the  total  score  for  each 
per  cent,  of  fat  below  three  per  cent  in  the  milk. 

The  cows  entered  in  the  test  are  separated  into  four 
classes,  according  to  the  breed,  each  class  being  divided 
into  two  divisions,  cows  and  heifers.  The  classes  are 
Shorthorns,  Jerseys,  Guernseys,  and  cross-breeds. 

Other  associations  abroad  or  in  this  country  have  not 
generally  followed  any  definite  plan  from  year  to  year  in 
awarding  premiums  to  dairy  cows  at  fairs,  the  awards  having 


DAIRY   COWS.  ^15 

been  given  to  cows  producing  most  milk,  or  richest  milk, 
or  most  butter-fat,  or  most  solids,  during  the  test,  which 
may  have  lasted  one  to  three  days.  At  the  Vermont  State 
Fair,  1889,  the  following  points  were  given  :  For  each  20 
days  since  calving,  i  point  ;  for  each  10  days  of  gestation, 
I  point  ;  for  each  2  oz.  of  total  solids  in  24  hours'  milk,  i 
point  ;  for  each  oz.  of  butter-fat  in  24  hours'  milk,  2  points; 
for  each  2  oz.  of  salted  butter  from  24  hours'  milk,  i  point. 
In  the  milking  trials  conducted  by  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England,  the  size  of  the  cows  has  been  con- 
sidered, the  cows  being,  as  a  rule,  separated  into  two 
classes,  viz.,  over  and  under  1 100  lbs.  live  weight. 

From  the  best  information  at  hand  at  the  present,  the 
system  of  awards  adopted  by  the  British  Dairy  Farmers' 
Association,  and  given  above,  must  be  considered  the  most 
perfect  and  the  most  just  to  all  concerned.  Its  main  short- 
comings lie,  as  it  would  seem,  in  its  not  considering  the 
food  eaten  by  each  animal  during  the  test,  and  in  the  fact 
that  the  test  is  made  at  the  fair,  and  not  at  home  under 
every-day  conditions  and  in  surroundings  familiar  to  the 
animals.  The  former  objection  would  be  removed  by  tak- 
ing into  account  the  dry  matter  in  the  food  eaten,  as  shown 
by  chemical  analysis. 

BUYING  AND  SELLING  COWS  BY  TESTS  OF  THEIR 
MILK.      (Emery.) 

The  money  value  of  a  cow  may  be  estimated  by  multi- 
plying the  number  of  gallons  of  milk  which  the  cow  gives 
by  12,  adding  to  or  subtracting  from  this  product  one  dollar 
for  every  one  fourth  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk  above  or 
below  3.5  per  cent. 

,,  ,           pounds  of  milk  per  day  ,      ,  ,  . 

Value  =-^- ~ X  12 +4  (per  cent  fat— 3.5). 

(See  Bull.  No.  113,  N.  C.  Exp.  Station.) 


216  DAIRYING. 

FIFTY  DAIRY  RULES. 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 
The  Owner  and  his  Helpers. — I.   Read  current  dairy  liter- 
ature and  keep  posted  on  new  ideas. 

2.  Observe  and  enforce  the  utmost  cleanliness  about  the 
cattle,  their  attendants,  the  stable,  the  dairy,  and  all  uten- 
sils. 

3.  A  person  suffering  from  any  disease,  or  who  has  been 
exposed  to  a  contagious  disease,  must  remain  away  from 
the  cows  and  the  milk. 

The  Stable. — 4.  Keep  dairy  cattle  in  a  room  or  building 
by  themselves.  It  is  preferable  to  have  no  cellar  below  and 
no  storage  loft  above. 

5.  Stables  should  be  well  ventilated,  lighted,  and  drained; 
should  have  tight  floors  and  walls  and  be  plainly  con- 
structed. 

6.  Never  use  musty  or  dirty  litter. 

7.  Allow  no  strong-smelling  material  in  the  stable  for  any 
length  of  time.  Store  the  manure  under  cover  outside  the 
cow-stable,  and  remove  it  to  a  distance  as  often  as  practi- 
cable. 

8.  Whitewash  the  stable  once  or  twice  a  year  ;  use  land 
plaster  in  the  manure-gutters  daily. 

g.  Use  no  dry,  dusty  feed  just  previous  to  milking  ;  if 
fodder  is  dusty,  sprinkle  it  before  it  is  fed. 

ID.  Clean  and  thoroughly  air  the  stable  before  milking  ; 
in  hot  weather  sprinkle  the  floor. 

II.  Keep  the  stable  and  dairy-room  in  good  condition, 
and  then  insist  that  the  dairy,  factory,  or  place  where  the 
milk  goes  be  kept  equally  well. 

The  Cows. — 12.  Have  the  herd  examined  at  least  twice  a 
year  by  a  skilled  veterinarian. 

13.  Promptly  remove  from  the  herd  any  animal  suspected 
of  being  in  bad  health,  and  reject  her  milk.  Never  add  an 
animal  to  the  herd  until  certain  it  is  free  from  disease,  espe- 
cially tuberculosis. 

14.  Do  not  move  cows  faster  than  a  comfortable  walk 
while  on  the  way  to  place  of  milking  or  feeding. 

15.  Never  allow  the  cows  to  be  excited  by  hard  driving; 


Dairy  cows.  217' 

abuse,  loud  talking,  or  unnecessary  disturbance  ;  do  not  ex- 
pose them  to  cold  or  storms. 

i6.   Do  not  change  the  feed  suddenly. 

17.  Feed  liberally,  and  use  only  fresh,  palatable  feed- 
stuffs  ;  in  no  case  should  decomposed  or  moldy  material  be 
used. 

18.  Provide  water  in  abundance,  easy  of  access,  and 
always  pure  ;  fresh,  but  not  too  cold. 

19.  Salt  should  always  be  accessible. 

20.  Do  not  allow  any  strong-flavored  food,  like  garlic, 
cabbage,  and  turnips,  to  be  eaten,  except  immediately  after 
milking. 

21.  Glean  the  entire  body  of  the  cow  daily.  If  hair  in  the 
region  of  the  udder  is  not  easily  kept  clean  it  should  be 
clipped. 

22.  Do  not  use  the  milk  within  twenty  days  before  calv- 
ing, nor  for  three  to  five  days  afterwards. 

Milking. — 23.  The  milker  should  be  clean  in  all  respects; 
he  should  not  use  tobacco  ;  he  should  wash  and  dry  his 
hands  just  before  milking. 

24.  The  milker  should  wear  a  clean  outer  garment,  used 
only  when  milking,  and  kept  in  a  clean  place  at  other 
times. 

25.  Brush  the  udder  and  surrounding  parts  just  before 
milking,  and  wipe  them  with  a  clean,  damp  cloth  or  sponge. 

26.  Milk  quietly,  quickly,  cleanly,  and  thoroughly.  Cows 
do  not  like  unnecessary  noise  or  delay.  Commence  milking 
at  exactly  the  same  hour  every  morning  and  evening,  and 
milk  the  cows  in  the  same  order. 

27.  Throw  away  (but  not  on  the  floor,  better  in  the  gut- 
ter) the  first  few  streams  from  each  teat  ;  this  milk  is  very 
watery  and  of  little  value,  but  it  may  injure  the  rest. 

28.  If  in  any  milking  a  part  of  the  milk  is  bloody, 
stringy  or  unnatural  in  appearance,  the  whole  mess  should 
be  rejected. 

29.  Milk  with  dry  hands;  never  allow  the  hands  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  milk. 

30.  Do  not  allow  dogs,  cats,  or  loafers  to  be  around  at 
inilking-time. 


^18  DAIRYING. 

31.  If  any  accident  occurs  by  which  a  pail  full  or  partly 
full  of  milk  becomes  dirty,  do  not  try  to  remedy  this  by 
straining,  but  reject  all  this  milk  and  rinse  the  pail. 

32.  Weigh  and  record  the  milk  given  by  each  cow,  and 
take  a  sample  morning  and  night,  at  least  once  a  week,  for 
testing  by  the  fat  test. 

Care  ofMilk.—2)2>-  Remove  the  milk  of  every  cow  at  once 
from  the  stable  to  a  clean,  dry  room,  where  the  air  is  pure 
and  sweet.  Do  not  allow  cans  to  remain  in  stables  while 
they  are  being  filled. 

34.  Strain  the  milk  through  a  metal  gauze  and  a  flannel 
cloth  or  layer  of  cotton  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn. 

35.  Aerate  and  cool  the  milk  as  soon  as  strained.  If  an 
apparatus  for  airing  and  cooling  at  the  same  time  is  not  at 
hand,  the  milk  should  be  aired  first.  This  must  be  done  in 
pure  air,  and  it  should  then  be  cooled  to  45  degrees  if  the 
milk  is  for  shipment,  or  to  60  degrees  if  for  home  use  or 
delivery  to  a  factory. 

36.  Never  close  a  can  containing  warm  milk  which  has 
not  been  aerated. 

37.  If  cover  is  left  off  the  can,  a  piece  of  cloth  or  mosquito- 
netting  should  be  used  to  keep  out  insects. 

38.  If  milk  is  stored,  it  should  be  held  in  tanks  of  fresh, 
cold  water  (renewed  daily),  in  a  clean,  dry,  cold  room. 
Unless  it  is  desired  to  remove  cream,  it  should  be  stirred 
with  a  tin  stirrer  often  enough  to  prevent  forming  a  thick 
cream  layer. 

39.  Keep  the  night  milk  under  shelter  so  rain  cannot  get 
into  the  cans.  In  warm  weather  hold  it  in  a  tank  of  fresh 
cold  water. 

40.  Never  mix  fresh  warm  milk  with  that  which  has  been 
cooled. 

41.  Do  not  allow  the  milk  to  freeze. 

42.  Under  no  circumstances  should  anything  be  added  to 
milk  to  prevent  its  souring.  Cleanliness  and  cold  are  the 
only  preventives  needed. 

43.  All  milk  should  be  in  good  condition  when  delivered. 
This  may  make  it  necessary  to  deliver  twice  a  day  during 
the  hottest  weather. 


DAIRY   COWS.  219 

44.  When  cans  are  hauled  far  they  should  be  full,  and 
carried  in  a  spring  wagon. 

45.  In  hot  weather  cover  the  cans,  when  moved  in  a 
wagon,  with  a  clean  wet  blanket  or  canvas. 

The  Utensils. — 46.  Milk-utensils  for  farm  use  should  be 
made  of  metal  and  have  all  joints  smoothly  soldered. 
Never  allow  them  to  become  rusty  or  rough  inside. 

47.  Do  not  haul  waste  products  back  to  the  farm  in  the 
same  cans  used  for  delivering  milk.  When  this  is  unavoid- 
able, insist  that  the  skim-milk  or  whey-tank  be  kept  clean. 

48.  Cans  used  for  the  return  of  skim-milk  or  whey  should 
be  emptied  and  cleaned  as  soon  as  they  arrive  at  the  farm, 

49.  Clean  all  dairy  utensils  by  first  thoroughly  rinsing 
them  in  warm  water;  then  clean  inside  and  out  with  a  brush 
and  hot  water  in  which  a  cleaning  material  is  dissolved; 
then  rinse  and  lastly  sterilize  by  boiling  water  or  steam. 
Use  pure  water  only. 

50.  After  cleaning,  keep  utensils,  inverted,  in  pure  air, 
and  sun  if  possible,  until  wanted  for  use. 


•320 


DAIRYIKGo 


II.    MILK. 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS 
OF   MILK.     (KoNiG.) 


Human 

Mare   

Buffalo 

Ass 

Cow 

Ewe 

Goat 

Reindeer* 

Sow 

Bitch :... 

El.-phant 

Hippopotamus 

Camel 

Llama 


No.  of 
Analy- 
ses. 


107 

50 

8 

7 

793 

32 

33 


Casein 

Water. 

Fat. 

and  Al- 
bumen. 

87.41 

3.78 

2.29 

90.78 

1.21 

1.99 

82.25 

7.51 

5.05 

89.64 

1.64 

2.22 

87.17 

3.69 

3.55 

80.82 

6.86 

6.52 

85. 7 1 

4. 78 

4.2Q 

67.20 

17.10 

"•39 

82.51 

5  78 

6.^4 

7.S.44 

9-57 

II. 17 

79-30 

9.10 

2-51 

90.43 

4.51 

86.57 

3.07 

4.00 

86.55 

3.15 

3-90 

Milk 
Sugar. 

Ash. 

Specific 
Grav- 
ity. 

6.21 

•31 

1.0270 

5.67 

•35 

1.0347 

4.44 

.75 

1.0330 

5.99 

.51 

1.0345 

4.88 

•71 

I. 0316 

4.91 

.89 

I. 034 I 

4.46 

.76 

1 .0328 

2.82 

1.49 

1.0177 

4.37 

1. 00 

1.0385 

3.09 

•73 

'•035 

8.59 

•50 

i.o^'3 

4.40 

.11 

5-59 

77 

1.042 

5. 60 

.80 

T.034 

*  Werenskiold. 

AVERAGE   ANALYSES   OF   AMERICAN   SAMPLES 
OF   DAIRY   PRODUCTS.     (Goessmann.) 


Whole 
Milk. 

Skim- 
milk. 

Butter- 
milk. 

Cream 

from 

Cooley 

Creamer. 

Butler. 

No.  of  samples 

1889 

348 

31 

197 

25 

Water 

86.53 

4.14 

3.20 

5.43* 

.70 

90.52 

.32 

3.53^ 

4.83» 

.80 

91.67 
.27 

4-47* 
.80 

73.90 
17.60 

"';62 

10.89 
83.95^ 
.42* 

Fat     

Casein  and  albumen.. 
Milk-sugar. . 

Ash 

4-74 

100.00 

l.XD.OO 

100.00 

100.00 

Total  solids 

13-47 
9-33 

9.48 
9.16 

8.33 
8.06 

26.10 
8.44 

89.11 
5.16 

Solids  not  fat 

*  By  difference. 


MILK, 


221 


AVERAGE  C03IP0SITI0X  OF  COWS'  MILK,  WITH 
VAKIATIOXS.     (KoNiG.) 


Average  of 
793  Analyses 
(largely  Euro- 
pean). 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Water 

Fat    ...        .     ...   . 

87  17  per  cent. 
3.69    '•      " 

3;- [3.55  per  ct. 

4.88  percent. 
.71    "      " 

80.32  per  cent. 
1.67    "      " 

';79  [2.07  per  ct. 
2. II  percent. 
•35    "      " 

90.69  percent 
6.47    "      " 

6-9  ^6.40  per  et. 

6.12  per  cent. 

Casein 

Albumen   

Ash .."..:'::::::: 

Total  solids 

Solids  not  fat 

100.00 

12.83  percent. 
9.14    "     " 

1.0310 

9.31  per  cent. 

19.68  per  cent. 

Specific  gravity.... 

J.O864 

1.0370 

COMPOSITION  OF  MORNING  AND  EVENING  MILK, 
AND  OF  MORNING,  NOON,  AND  EVENING  3IILK. 

(KoNIG) 


No. 

of  An- 
alyses. 

Water. 

Fat. 

Casein 

and 

Albumen. 

Milk- 
sugar. 

Ash. 

Total 
Solids. 

Morning  milk. 
Evening      " 

157 
157 

Per  ct. 

86.70 
86.47 

Per  ct 
3-32 
3-56 

Per  ct. 

3.63 
3.65 

Per  ct. 

5.64 
5.60 

P'rct. 

•71 
.72 

Per  ct: 

13-30 
13-53 

Morning  milk. 
Noon            " 
Evening       " 

28 
28 

■2. 

88.08 
87.44 
87.49 

3.06 
3-87 
3.62 

3-24 
3.26 
319 

4.88 
4.68 
4.99 

.74 
■75 
•71 

11.92 
12.56 
12.51 

COMPOSITION    OF    DIFFERENT    PARTS    OF    THE 
SAME    MILKINGS.     (Konig.) 


No. 
of  An- 
alyses. 

Water. 

Fat. 

Casein 

and 

Albumen. 

Milk- 
sugar. 

Ash. 

Total 
Solids. 

First  portion.. 
Second     "      .. 
Third       "      .. 

7 
7 
6 

Per  ct. 

89.84 
88.12 
36.29 

Per  ct. 
1.78 

5;ii 

Per  ct. 

2.88 
2.94 
2.59 

Per  ct. 

4.81 
4.92 
5-88 

P'rct. 

.69 
.68 
•72 

Per  ct. 

10.16 
11.88 
13-7' 

:23 


DAIRYING. 


CALCULATION    OF    COMPONENTS    OP   COWS' 
MILK. 

According  to  Vieth  the  components  of  the  non-fatty  milk 
solids  will  stand  in  the  ratio  to  one  another  of  about 


lo 


2 

ash. 


:  13 

for         casein  and  albumen     :     milk  sugar 

If  the  solids  not  fat  in  a  sample  of  milk  are  9  per  cent, 
the  per  cent  of  casein  and  albumen  in  the  same  will  be 
approximately  ^5  X  10  =  3.60  per  cent;  sugar,  /^  X  13  --  4- 63 
per  cent;  and  ash,  ^^^  X  2  =  .72  per  cent. 


TABLE  SHOWING  RELATION  OF  FAT  TO  CASEIN 
AND  OTHER  SOLIDS.  (Cooke.) 


Total  Solids. 

Fat. 

Casein  and 
Albumen. 

Milk-sugar 
and  Ash. 

Solids 
not  Fat. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

II.CX3 

3-07 

2.92 

5. CI 

7-93 

11.50 

3-29 

3.00 

5-21 

8.21 

12.00 

3-50 

3-07 

5-43 

8.50 

12.50 

3-75 

3-19 

5.56 

8.75 

13.00 

3-99 

3-30 

5-71 

9.01 

13.50 

4.34 

3-44 

5-72 

9.16 

14.00 

4.68 

3-57 

5-75 

9-32 

14.50 

4-93 

3-79 

5.68 

9-47 

15.00 

5-38 

4.00 

5.62 

9.62 

15.50 

5-69 

4.15 

5.66 

9.81 

16,00 

6.00 

4-30 

5-70 

10.00 

This  table,  which  is  summarized  from  the  analyses  of 
about  2400  American  samples  of  milk,  shows  that  while  the 
percentage  of  fat  varies  from  3.07  to  6  per  cent,  or  nearly 
three  per  cent,  that  of  casein  varies  only  from  2.'.;2  .0  .^.j-^ 
per  cent,  less  than  one  and  one  half  per  cent,  it  also 
shows  that  a  higher  percentage  of  fat  is  always  accom- 
panied by  a  higher  percentage  of  casein.  Milk  sugar  and 
ash  increase  but  little  as  the  milk  grows  richer. 


MILK. 


223 


FERTILIZING     INGREDIENTS     IN     DAIRY     PROD- 
UCTS. 


Average  of  American  Analyses.    (Cooke  and  Hills.) 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 
Acid. 

Potash. 

Value  per 
Ton. 

Whole  milk 

Skim-milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

.40 
.48 
•15 
.12 

3-93 

.19% 

.20 

•15 

•17 

•14 

.04 

.60 

•175^ 

.185 

.130 

.158 

.181 

.036 

.120 

S  2.17 

2.31 

.66 

1.Q8 

.84 

Butter      

•49 

Cheese 

COMPOSITION   OF   COLOSTRUM.     (Konig.) 


No.  of 
Anal- 
yses. 

Water. 

Casein. 

Albu- 
men. 

Butter- 
fat. 

Milk- 
sugar. 

Ash. 

Ewe 

Goat 

II 

I 

I 

43 

77-9 
64.1 
70.1 
74.6 

4.9 
4.0 

3-4 

3-2 

8.0 
13.6 

8.3 

4.6 

3-9 
2.7 

•9 

Sow 

•9 

1.6 

COMPOSITION    OF     ASH    OF   COWS'   MILK  AND 
COLOSTRUM. 

Cov 

Total  ash ■ 

100  parts  of  ash  will  contain  : 

Potash 24 

Soda 6 

Lime > 23 

Phosphoric  acid 28 

Chlorjn 13 


Hilk. 

Colostrum. 

r  cent 

1.6 

7 
6 

per  cent 

<i 

35 
41 
»3 

tt 

224  DAIRYING, 

A    CHAPTER    ON    MILK    TESTING.* 

The  Babcock  milk  test  is  the  quick  and  simple  method 
of  determining  the  fat  content  of  milk  which  has  been 
most  generally  adopted  in  this  country.  The  test  was  in- 
vented by  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock,  of  Wisconsin  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  and  was  first  published  in  July,  1890. 
The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  method: 

A  known  quantity  of  milk  (17.6  cubic  centimeters,  or 
about  I  of  an  ounce)  is  pipetted  off  into  a  graduated  test- 
bottle;  17.5  cc.  of  commercial  sulfuric  acid,  of  a  specific  * 
gravity  of  1.S2  to  1.S3,  is  then  measured  out  by  means  of 
a  graduated  cylinder  or  an  automatic  pipette,  and  added  to 
the  milk.  The  two  fluids  are  mixed,  and  when  the  curd  is 
dissolved,  the  test-bottles  are  placed  in  a  centrifugal  ma- 
chine and  whirled  for  5  minutes  at  a  rate  of  80Q-1200  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  the  small  hand-machines  on  the  market 
requiring  the  higher  number  of  revolutions.  Boiling  hot 
water  is  then  filled  into  the  bottles,  by  which  means  the 
liquid  fat  is  brought  into  the  narrow  graduated  neck  of  the 
bottles  ;  after  an  additional  whirling  of  the  bottles  for  a 
minute,  the  length  of  the  column  of  fat  is  read  off  in  per 
cent. 

The  whole  process  of  testing  a  sample  of  milk  according 
to  this  method  will  take  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
when  a  little  skill  in  manipulation  has  been  reached. 

The  various  dealers  in  dairy  implements  have  placed 
Babcock  machines  on  the  market  in  sizes  fiom  4-  to  60- 
bottle  machines,  and  supply  the  necessary  outfit,  as  test- 
bottles,  pipettes,  graduates,  and  sulfuric  acid.  There  are 
at  present  three  different  types  of  machines — hand-machines 
(friction  or  cog-wheel  machines;  the  latter  ones  are  to  be 
preferred,  and  have  now  practically  replaced  the  friction 
machines),  steam  turbine,  and  belt-power  machines.  The 
"Facile"  Babcock  testers,  manufactured  by  D.  H.  Burrell 

*  The  subject  of  milk  testing  is  treated  exhaustively,  and  detailed  direc- 
tions for  using  the  Babcock  test  are  given  in  Farrington-Woll,  Testhig 
Milk  and  its  Products,  Mendota  Book  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.  6th  Edition, 
1899- 


MILK.  225 

&  Co.,  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  are,  in  the  author's  opinion,  the 
best  hand-machines  on  the  maiket  at  the  present  time. 
Steam  turbine  machines  are  to  be  recommended  for  factory 
use;  they  should  always  be  provided  with  a  speed  indicator 
so  as  to  avoid  too  slow  or  too  rapid  whirling:  several  acci- 
dents have  happened  where  the  bottles  were  unable  to 
stand  the  pressure  caused  by  too  rapid  whirling. 

In  Sharpies'  Russian  Babcock  Tester  (a  steam  turbine 
test  r.anufactured  by  Elgin  Mfg.  Co.,  Elgin,  111.)  the  bot- 
tles used  can  be  filled  with  hot  water  while  the  machine  is 
in  motion  ;  the  test  bottles  used  are  arranged  for  half  the 
usual  quantity  of  milk. 

Points  to  be  watched  in  making  tests  by  the  Babcock 
method  : 

The  strength  of  the  acid  used  is  very  important;  its 
specific  gravity  should  not  go  below  1.82  or  above  1.84  ;  if 
the  acid  is  somewhat  too  strong  less  may  be  taken,  and  a 
little  more  if  it  is  rather  weak.  It  is,  however,  not  possible 
to  make  a  satisfactory  test  with  acid  of  a  specific  gravity 
below  1.82.  Keep  the  acid  bottle  corked  when  not  in  use, 
as  the  acid  will  otherwise  take  up  moisture  from  the  air. 

In  testing  separator  skim-milk  use  a  somewhat  larger 
quantity  of  acid  than  usual,  and  whirl  5  to  6  minutes;  this 
will  insure  a  nearly  perfect  separation  of  all  the  fat  present 
in  such  milks.  The  two-necked  so-called  Ohlsscn  bottles 
are  recommended  for  testing  separator  skim-milk  ;  the 
results  should  be  increased  by  .05  per  cent  with  these  as 
with  other  test  bottles,  in  testing  separator  skim-milk. 

The  centrifugal  machine  should  run  at  a  rate  of  about 
800  to  1000  revolutions  per  minute;  if  its  diameter  is  small, 
whirl  1000  or  1200. 

Soft  or  rain-water  is  used  in  filling  up  the  bottle  after 
boiling,  or  hard  water  may  be  used  if  some  drops  of  sulfuric 
acid  have  been  added  to  it  before  the  boiling. 

In  adding  the  acid  the  bottle  should  be  held  at  an  angle, 
so  as  to  cause  the  acid  to  follow  the  inside  of  the  wall.  Mix 
the  milk  and  acid  at  once,  or  within  a  short  time,  and  pro- 
ceed with  the  test  without  delay. 

Read  off  results  before  the  fat  begins  to  crystallize.     If 


226  DAIRYING. 

many  tests  are  made  at  a  time,  and  the  room  is  cold,  place 
the  bottles  in  a  pail  with  hot  water  and  keep  them  warm 
until  results  are  recorded. 

Application  of  Babcock's  Test. — The  method  maybe  used 
to  advantage  in  determining  the  fat  content  of  full  milk, 
skim-milk,  buttermilk,  whey,  cream,  condensed  milk,  and 
cheese.  It  cannot  be  recommended  for  the  estimation  of 
fat  in  butter,  since  the  error  of  analysis  in  this  case  is  too 
large.  In  testing  separator  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey 
by  this  method,  no  reading  should  be  taken  lower  than  one- 
tenth  of  one  per  cent.  If  only  a  small  drop  or  two  of  liquid 
fat  appears  in  the  neck  of  the  bottles  after  finished  whirling, 
the  result  is  therefore  to  be  put  down  as  .i  per  cent,  instead 
of  estimates  of  .05,  and  still  lower,  which  are  sometimes 
made.     (See  Bull.  No.  52,  Wis.  Experiment  Station.) 

Lactometer. — The  Quevenne  lactometer,  with  the  ther- 
mometer tube  extending  into  the  narrow  stem  of  the  instru- 
ment, is  recommended  for  dairy  work.  In  the  N.  Y.  Board 
of  Health  lactometer,  often  used,  the  scale  is  divided  into 
120  divisions,  the  mark  100  corresponding  to  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.029,  a-^d  that  of  120  to  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.0348.  These  lactometer  degrees  can  be  converted  into 
Quevenne  lactometer  degrees  by  multiplying  by  .29.  The 
following  table  gives  the  readings  of  the  two  scales  be- 
tween 6q  and  120  on  the  Board  of  Health  lactometer; 


MILK. 


22' 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUEVENNE  LACTOMETER 
DEGREES  CORRESPONDING  TO  THE  SCALE  OF 
LACTOMETERS  GRADUATED  FROM  60  TO  120. 


N.  Y.  Bd 

of  Health 
Scale. 

Quevenne 
Scale. 

N.  Y.  Bd. 

of  Health 

Scale. 

Quevenne 
Scale. 

N.  Y.  Bd. 

of  Health 

Scale. 

Quevenne 
Scale. 

60 

17.4 

81 

23-5 

lOI 

293 

61 

17.7 

82 

23.8 

102 

29.6 

62 

18 

83 

24.1 

103 

29.9 

63 

18.3 

84 

24.4 

104 

30.2 

64 

18.6 

85 

24.6 

105 

30-5 

65 

18.8 

86 

24.9 

106 

30.7 

66 

19. 1 

87 

25.2 

107 

31 

67 

19.4 

88 

25-5 

108 

31-3 

68 

19.7 

89 

25.8 

109 

31.6 

69 

20 

90 

26.1 

no 

31-9 

70 

29 -3 

91 

26.4 

III 

32.2 

71 

20.6 

92 

26.7 

112 

32.5 

72 

20.9 

93 

27 

"3 

32.8 

73 

21.2 

94 

27-3 

114 

33.1 

74 

21.5 

95 

27.6 

115 

33-4 

75 

21.7 

96 

27.8 

116 

33-6 

76 

22 

97 

28.1 

117 

33-9 

77 

22.3 

98 

28.4 

118 

34-2 

78 

22.6 

99 

28.7 

119 

34-5 

79 

22.9 

100 

29 

120 

34-8 

80 

23.2 

In  taking  the  specific  gravity  of  milk  by  means  of  a  lac- 
tometer, the  temperature  of  the  milk  should  not  vary  more 
than  10°  either  way  from  60°  F.  The  following  tables 
show  the  proper  corrections  for  temperature  to  be  made,  if 
the  milk  was  either  warmer  or  colder  than  60°  F.,  the  tem- 
perature to  which  the  specific  gravities  of  all  liquids  are 
usually  referred. 

In  practical  work  sufficiently  accurate  corrections  for  tem- 
perature may  generally  be  made  by  adding  .1  to  the  lacto- 
meter reading  for  each  degree  above  60°  F. ,  and  by  subtract- 
ing .1  for  each  degree  below  60°;  e.g.,  if  the  reading  at  64° 
is  29.5,  it  will  be  about  29.5  -f-  .4  =  29.9  at  60°;  if  34.0  at  52°, 
it  will  be  about  34.0  —  .8  =  33.2  at  60°.  By  reference  to  the 
following  table  we  find  it  is  more  correctly  33.0. 


228 


DAIRYING. 


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MILK. 


229 


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230  DAIRYING. 


CALCULATION  OF  TOTAL  SOLIDS  OF  MILK. 

The  relation  existing  between  the  various  components  of 
the  milk  is  such  as  to  make  possible  the  calculation  of  the 
percentage  of  solids  not  fat,  and  total  solids,  in  a  sample  of 
milk  when  the  fat-content  and  the  specific  gravity  (lactom- 
eter reading)  of  the  milk  are  known.  Several  formulas 
have  been  worked  out  by  chemists  in  different  parts  of  the 
world,  by  the  application  of  which  the  total  solids  may  be 
calculated  from  the  percentage  of  fat  and  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  the  milk.  We  give  here  Babcock's  formula,  pub- 
lished in  the  twelfth  report  of  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station. 

Solids    not    fat  =  ( ~ — — ^  —  i)  X  (loo  —  /)  2.5, 

\ioo  —  1.0753J/  '  J  /      :^' 

where  s  =  specific  gravity  of  the  milk  and /per  cent  of  fat 

found.     When  s  and /are  known  the  per  cent  of  solids  not 

fat  in  the  milk  maybe  calculated  by  means  of  this  formula. 

In  order  to  avoid  making  the  lengthy  calculations  in  every 

case,  tables  for  solids  not  fat  are  given  on  the  following 

pages;  results  obtained  by  the    formula    given   above,  or 

by  means  of  the  following  tables,  will  come  within  a  couple 

of    tenths    from    the    actual    percentages    present,    when 

reasonable  care  is  taken   in  the  determinations  of  fat  and 

specific  gravity  (or  lactometer  reading). 

Short  formulas.     The   following   formulas  for  solids  not 

fat  and  for  total  solids  are  derived  from  the  data  given  in 

the  following   tables.      L  —  lactometer  reading   at   60°   F. 

(specific    gravity  X  1000—  1000);    /=  per   cent  of    fat   in 

milk. 

Solids  not  fat  = \-   .2/ 

4 

Total  solids  = \-  i.2f, 

4       _      _ 


MILK.  231 

Rule  :  To  find  pet-  cent  of  solids  not  fat,  add  tzuo  tenths  of 
the  per  cent  of  fat  to  one  fourth  of  the  lactometer  reading. 

To  find  per  cent  of  total  solids,  add  one  and  two  tenths  times 
the  per  cent  of  fat  to  one  fourth  of  the  lactofneter  reading. 

Results  obtained  by  using  the  short  formulas  will  agree 
very  closely  with  those  derived  from  the  general  formula, 
or  from  the  tables  published  below,  and  may  be  safely 
relied  upon  in  practical  work. 

The  tables  cover  a  range  of  .o  to  6.0  per  cent  of  fat, 
and  from  26  to  36  lactometer  reading.  If  intermediate 
values  for  /and  L  are  at  hand,  corrections  in  the  per  cent 
of  solids  not  fat  found  may  easily  be  made,  with  .02  per 
cent  for  every  tenth  of  one  per  cent  of  fat,  and  .25  per 
cent  for  every  lactometer  degree.  Example:  Given /  = 
3.67  per  cent  and  L  =  32.5.  By  referring  to  the  table  we 
find  that  f  — '^.b  and  L  —  yi  will  give  8.73  per  cent  of 
solids  not  fat;  correction  for  fat-content,  .01  per  cent  (3.67 
being  nearer  3.65  than  3.70),  and  for  lactometer  reading, 
12  per  cent;  corrected  per  cent  solids  not  fat,  8.86. 


232 


DAIRYING. 


TABLE  SHOWING  PER  CENT  OF  SOLIDS  NOT  FAT, 

Corresponding  to  Quevenne  Lactometer  Readings  and 
Per  Cent  of  Fat.     (Babcock.) 


Per 

Lactometer  Readings  at  60°  Fahr. 

Per 

Ct.of 
Fat. 

Ct.of 
Fat. 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 
8.00 

33 

si's 

34 

35 

_j6 
9.00 

o 

6  50 

"6^5 

7.00 

7.25 

7-50 

7-75 

8.75 

.0 

.1 

6.52 

6.77 

7.02 

7.27 

7-52 

7-77 

8.02 

8.27 

8.52 

8.77 

9.02 

.1 

.2 

6.54 

6.79 

7.04 

7.29 

7-54 

7-79 

8.04 

8.29 

8.54 

8.79 

9.04 

.2 

•3 

6  56 

6.81 

7.06 

7.31 

7.56 

7.81 

8.06 

8.31 

8.56 

8  81 

9.06 

■3 

•4 

6.58 

6.83 

7.08 

7.33 

758 

7-83 

8.08 

8.33 

8.58 

8.83 

9.08 

•4 

•5 

6.60 

6.85 

7.10 

7.35 

7.60 

7-85 

8.10 

8  35 

8.60 

8.85 

9.10 

•5 

.6 

6.62 

6.87 

7.12 

7  37 

7.62 

7.87 

8.12 

8.37 

8.62 

8.87 

9.12 

.6 

.7 

6.64 

6.89 

7.M 

7:39 

7.64 

7.89 

8.14 

8.39 

8.64 

8  89 

9.14 

.7 

.8 

6.66 

6  91 

7.16 

7.41 

7.66 

7.91 

8.16 

8.41 

8.66 

8.91 

9.16 

.8 

•9 

6.68 

6.93 

7.18 

7-43 

7.68 

7-93 

8.18 

8.43 

8.68 

8.93 

9.18 

•9 

I.O 

6.70 

e.g."; 

7.20 

7-45 

7.70 

7-95 

8.20 

8.45 

8.70 

8.95 

9.20 

1.0 

i.i 

6.72 

6.97 

7.22 

7-47 

7.72 

7-97 

8.22 

8.47 

8.72 

8.97 

9.22 

I.I 

1.2 

6.74 

6.99 

7.24 

7-49 

7-74 

7.99 

8.24 

8.49 

8.74 

8.99 

9.24 

1.2 

1-3 

6.76 

7.01 

7.26 

7-51 

7.76 

8.01 

8.26 

8.51 

8.76 

9.01 

9.26 

1-3 

1-4 

6.78 

7-03 

7.28 

7-53 

7.78 

8.03 

8.28 

8.53 

8.78 

9.03 

9. 23 

1.4 

1-5 

6.80 

705 

730 

7-55 

7.80 

8.05 

8.30 

8.55 

8.80 

905 

9-30 

1-5 

1.6 

6.82 

7.07 

7-32 

7-57 

7.82 

8  07 

8.32 

8.57 

8.82 

9.07 

932 

1.6 

1-7 

6.84 

7.09 

7  34 

7-59 

7.84 

8.09 

8.34 

8.59 

8.84 

9  09 

9-34 

1-7 

1.8 

6.86 

7. II 

7.36 

7.61 

7  86 

8. II 

8.36 

8.61 

8.86 

9. II 

9-37 

1.8 

1.9 

6.88 

7-13 

7.38 

7.63 

7.88 

8.13 

8.38 

8.63 

8.88 

9  14 

9-39 

1.9 

2.0 

6.90 

7-15 

7.40 

7-65 

7.9D 

8.15 

8.40 

8.66 

8.91 

9  16 

9.41 

2.0 

2.1 

6.92 

7.17 

7.42 

7.67 

7.92 

8.17 

8.42 

8.68 

8. 03 

9.18 

9-43 

2.1 

2.2 

6.94 

7.19 

7-44 

7.69 

7-94 

8.T9 

8.44 

8.70 

8.95 

9.20 

9-45 

2.2 

23 

6.96 

7.21 

7.46 

7.71 

7.96 

8.21 

8.46 

8.72 

8.97 

9.22 

9-47 

2-3 

2.4 

6  98 

7-23 

7.48 

7-73 

798 

8.23 

8.48 

8.74 

8.99 

9.24 

9.49 

2  4 

2-5 

7.00 

725 

7-50 

7-75 

8.00 

8.25 

8.50 

8.76 

9.01 

9  26 

9-51 

2.5 

2.6 

7.02 

7.27 

7-52 

7  77 

8.02 

8.27 

8.52 

8.78 

9-03 

9.28 

9-53 

2.6 

2.7 

7.04 

7.29 

7-54 

7-79 

8.04 

8.29 

8.54 

8.80 

905 

9-30 

9-55 

^.7 

2.8 

7.06 

7-31 

7.56 

7.8c 

8.06 

8.31 

8.57 

8.82 

9.07 

932 

9-57 

2.8 

2.9 

7.08 

7-33 

7.58 

7.83 

8.08 

8.33 

8.59 

8.84 

9.09 

9-34 

9-59 

2.9 

3-0 

7.10 

7-35 

7.60 

7.85 

8.10 

8.36 

8.61 

8.86 

9. II 

9  3fi 

9.61 

3.0 

3-1 

7.12 

7-37 

7.62 

7.87 

8. 13 

8.38 

8.63 

8.88 

9  13 

9-38 

9.64 

3.1 

3-2 

7-14 

7-39 

7-64 

7.89 

8.15 

8.40 

8.6s 

8.Q0 

9  15 

9  41 

9.66 

3-2 

3-3 

7.16 

7.41 

7.66 

7.92 

8.17 

8.42 

8.67 

8.92 

9.18 

9-43 

9.68 

3-3 

3-4 

7.18 

7-43 

7-69 

7.94 

8.19 

8.44 

8.69 

8.94 

9.20 

9-45 

9.70 

3-4 

3-5 

7.20 

7-45 

7.71 

7.96 

8.21 

8.46 

8.71 

8.96 

9.22 

9-47 

9.72 

3-5 

3-6 

7.22 

7.48 

7-73 

7.98 

8.23 

8.48 

8.73 

8.98 

9.24 

9-49 

9-74 

3-6 

3-7 

7.24 

7-50 

7-75 

8.00 

8.25 

8  50 

8.75 

9.00 

9.26 

9  51 

9.76 

3-7 

3-8 

7.26 

752 

7-77 

8.02 

8.27 

8.52 

8.77 

9.02 

9.28 

9-53 

9.78 

3-8 

3-9 

7.28 

7-54 

7-79 

8.04 

8.29 

8.54 

8.79 

9.04 

9-30 

9-55 

9.80 

3-9 

4.0 

7.30 

7.56 

7.81 

8.06 

8.31 

8.56 

8.81 

9  06 

9-32 

9.57 

9-83 

4.0 

4.1 

7-32 

783 

8.08 

8.33 

8.58 

8.83 

9.09 

9-34 

9-59 

9.85 

4.1 

4.2 

7-34 

7.60 

7.85 

8.10 

8.35 

8  60 

8.85 

9.11 

9-36 

9.62 

9.87 

4.2 

4-3 

7-36 

7.62 

7.87 

8.12 

8.37 

8.62 

8.88 

9-13 

9-38 

9.64 

9.89 

4-3 

4-4 

7.38 

7.64 

7  80 

8.14 

8.39 

8.64 

8.90 

915 

9.40 

9.66 

9.91 

4-4 

MILK. 


233 


TABLE  FOR    SOLIDS   NOT   FAT— (Continued). 


Per 

Lactometer  Readings  at  60°  Fahr. 

Per 

Ct.of 

Ct.  ot 

Fat. 

26 

27 

28 

29 
8.16 

30 

31 
8.66 

32 
8.92 

33 
9.17 

34 
9.42 

35 
9.68 

36 
9-93 

Fat. 

4-5 

7.40 

7.66 

7.91 

8.41 

4  5 

4.6 

7-43 

7.68 

7-93 

8.18 

8.43 

8.68 

8.94 

9.19 

9-44 

9.70 

9-95 

4.6 

4-7 

7-45 

7.70 

7-95 

8.20 

8.4.S 

8.70 

8.96 

9.21 

9.46 

9.72 

9-97 

4-7 

4.8 

7-47 

7.72 

7-97 

8.22 

8.47 

8.72 

8.98 

9.23 

9.48 

9.74 

9-99 

4.8 

4.9 

7-49 

7-74 

7  99 

8.24 

8.49 

8.74 

9.00 

9.25 

9  50 

9.76 

10.01 

4-9 

5-0 

7-51 

7.76 

8.01 

8.26 

8.51 

S.,6 

9.02 

9.27 

9-52 

9.78 

10.03 

5.0 

5-1 

7-5^ 

7.78 

8.0-, 

8.28 

8.53 

8.79 

9-05 

9  29 

9-54 

9.80 

10.05 

5.1 

5-2 

7SS 

7.80 

8.0s 

8.30 

8.SS 

8.8t 

9.06 

9.31 

Q.Sb 

9.82 

10.07 

5.2 

5-3 

7-57 

782 

8.07 

^.32 

8.S7 

8.83 

9  08 

9-33 

Q.,S8 

9.84 

10.09 

5-3 

5-4 

7-59 

7.84 

8.C9 

8.34 

8.60 

8.85 

9.10 

9-36 

9.61 

9.86 

10. II 

5-4 

5-5 

7.61 

7.86 

8.11 

8.36 

8.62 

8.87 

9.12 

9.38 

9-63 

9.88 

10.73 

5.5 

5-6 

7-63 

7.88 

8.13 

8.39 

8.64 

8.89 

9-T5 

9.40 

9.6s 

9.90 

10.15 

5-6 

5-7 

7.t-. 

7.90 

8..,S 

8.41 

8.66 

8.qi 

9.17 

9.42 

9.67 

9.92 

10.17 

5-7 

5-8 

7.67 

7.92 

8.17 

8.43 

8.68 

8  94 

9.19 

9-44 

9.69 

9.94 

10.19 

S.8 

5-9 

7.69 

7-94 

8.20 

8.45 

8.70 

8.96 

9.21 

9  4t) 

9.71 

9.96 

10.22 

5-9 

6.0 

7.71 

7.96 

8.22 

8.47 

8.72 

8  98 

9.23 

9.48 

9.73 

9.98 

10.24 

6.0 

Correction  for  Hundredths  of  Per  cent  of  Fat. 


Difference. 

.25 

.26 

.01 

•03 

.03 

.02 

•  05 

.05 

.03 

.08 

.08 

.04 

.10 

.10 

.OS 

.13 

•«3 

.06 

.15 

.16 

.07 

.18 

.18 

.08 

.20 

.21 

.09 

.23 

•23 

CALCULATION  OF  SP.  GR.  OF  MILK  SOLIDS. 

(Fleischmann.) 

Sp.  gr.  of  milk  solids  —  S  — ■ 

loox  —  100 


where  s  =  sp.  gr.  of  milk,  t  =  solids  of  milk.  In  pure 
whole  milk  6"  varies  but  little,  viz.,  between  1.25  and  1.34. 
When  6*  comes  above  1.34,  the  milk  is  suspicious  ;  if  above 
1.40,  it  has  been  skimmed  (see  page  275^). 


234 


DAIRYING. 


6 
U 

2 

Full  cream,  30^  fat. 
Half  skim.  15^  fat. 
Skim,  from  skim-milk. 
2S%  total  solids  to  be  fat. 

to 

1 

Si 

3 

PQ 

1 

4P 

eg 

a 
S 
u 

i 

c 
U 

S             li^                  8 

s 
s 

0.  0 

1 

ro                  m  r<i  en  m  M  ro 

2 

PI  fO 

0                CO  cJ^f^  ^  0  o% 

i°l 

.             'o'o' 

2-S 

1 

2        2'  2  s  M  -  2  d  a  s  :r 

f<1  N    N    N    M 

(J5 

c 

ct 
0 

5 

3 
B 

3 
0 
u 

"0 

1        1 

3_^ 

■  1 

3     . 

<  : 

c 

•c 

c 

ii 

C 
■> 

* 

C 

c 

V 

c 

3 

T3 
C 
c« 

>^ 

OS 

MILK, 


235 


■"'43  *J 

-  a 
all 

rt  <u  i  a 
OOc/5 


s'9 
.-a 

o-o  9 

COD  O 


fcKc/) 


0<M 

CO 

cj;§-^t/^  H 

a  . 


lO  "1  w 


"^^h^ 


o  o  o  o  o  o  o 


ir.  O  be  O 


G.JJ 


o  3  2      i2 


c"rt  o  5  u  a  '^  • 

•35CQ03UQOP,V3 

C<M.    .    .    -    .    , 

8  ° 


em 


rt  03  u 


dj3 

— 

Ui 

,»j 

hi) 

OX! 

a 

^ 

Si 

o 

a 

ti 

in 

Cfl 

rt 

XJ 

o 

o 

a 

U3 

V 

O 

X! 

> 

f ) 

x: 

Si 

rt 

^ 

"v 

^ 

a 

>-^ 

c 

^ 

a 

o 

c 

•?• 

V 

tn 

•u 

a 

r 

T 

» 

<Xl 

236  DAIRYING. 

ADUIiTEllATION  OF  MILKr 

The  legal  standards  adopted  in  the  different  States  of  the 
Union  determine  the  limits  for  fat  or  solids,  below  which 
the  milk  offered  for  sale  must  not  fall.  Where  no  control 
sample  can  be  taken  of  a  suspected  sample  of  milk,  calcula- 
tions of  the  extent  of  the  adulteration  practised  are  made 
on  basis  of  the  legal  standard  in  each  State.  Whenever 
possible,  a  control  sample  should  be  secured  on  the  prem- 
ises of  the  suspected  party,  and  subjected  to  analysis.  If 
the  control  sample  contains  appreciably  less  fat  or  solids 
not  fat  than  did  the  suspected  sample,  the  latter  was 
skimmed  or  watered,  or  both  skimmed  and  watered.* 

Skimming. — I.  If  a  sample  is  skimmed,  the  following  for- 
mula will  give  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat  abstracted  from 
IOC  lbs.  of  milk  : 

Fat  abstracted  =  x  —  legal  standard  for  fat  — /,  .     (I) 

/"being  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  suspected  sample. 

In  this  and  following  formulas  the  percentages  found  in 
the  control  samples,  if  such  are  at  hand,  are  always  to  be 
substituted  for  the  legal  standards. 

II.  The  following  formula  will  give  the  per  cent  of  fat 
abstracted,  calculated  on  the  total  quantity  of  fat  originally 
found  in  the  milk: 

jr  =  ICO  - ^ — — - — — - (II) 

leg.  stand,  for  fat 

Watering. — I.   If  a  sample  is  watered,  the  calculations 

are   most   conveniently  based   on  the   percentage  of   solids 

not  fat  in  the  milk: 

Per  cent  extraneous  water  in  milk 

•y  X  lOO .Tin 

=  .r  =  lOO  —   :; — 77^ Z — ,       .       (Ill) 

leg.  Stand,  for  solids  not  fat 

s  being  the   per  cent    of    solids    not    fat    in  the  suspected 
sample. 

Example. — A  sample  contains  8.5  per  cent  of  solids  not 
fat  ;  if  the  legal  standard  for   solids  not  fat  be  9  per  cent, 

8.5  X  100  ,       .„     .         , 

100 =  5.6,  will  give  the  per  cent  of  extraneous 

9 
water  in  the  suspected  sample  of  milk. 


*  See   Farrington-Woll,    Testing  Milk  and  its  Products^   6th  Ed.,  pp. 
96-103. 


MILK.  237 


8.5  X  100 
100  —  =  5.6,  will  give  the  per  cent  of  extraneous 

water  in  the  suspected  sample  of  milk. 

II.   Watering  of  milk  may  also  be  expressed  in  per  cent 
of  water  added  to  the  original  milk,  by  formula  IV  : 


Per  cent  water  added  to  original  milk 

100  X  leg.  stand,  for  solids  not  fat 


(IV) 


100  X  9 
In  the  example  given  above,  — 100  =  5.9  per  cent 

8.5 
of  water  was  added  to  the  original  milk. 

Watering  and  Skimming. — If  a  sample  has  been  both 
watered  and  skimmed,  the  extent  of  watering  is  ascertained 
by  means  of  formula  III  ;  and  the  fat  abstracted  found  ac* 
cording  to  the  following  formula  : 

Per  cent  fat  abstracted 

,  ,      ,         leg.  stand,  for  solids  not  fat      ,      .,^. 
=  ;»:  =  leg.  stand,  for  fat X/.     (V) 


Example. — A  sample  of  milk  contains  2.4  per  cent  of  fat 

and  8.1  per  cent  solids  not  fat;  then 

8.1  X  100 

extraneous  water  in  milk  =  100 =  10  per  cent; 

9 

Q  X  2.4 
fat  abstracted  =      3 5 =  -33  per  cent. 

o.  I 

100  lbs.  of  the  milk  contained  10  lbs.  of  extraneous  water 
and  .33  lb.  of  fat  had  been  skimmed  from  it. 

\   RANGES    OF   THE   VARIATIONS   IN   THE    COM- 
POSITION   OF    HERD    MILK.     (Fleischmann.) 

The  specific  gravity  (expressed  in  degrees)  may  go  above 
or  below  the  yearly  average  by  more  than  10  per  cent. 

The  per  cent  of  fat  may  go  above  or  below  the  yearly 
average  by  more  than  30  per  cent. 

The  per  cent  of  total  solids  may  go  above  or  below  the 
yearly  average  by  more  than  14  per  cent. 

The  per  cent  of  solids  not  fat  may  go  above  or  below  the 
yearly  average  by  more  than  10  per  cent. 


238 


DAIRYING. 


TABLE   FOR  CONVERTING    QUARTS   OF  MILK 
INTO   POUNDS. 


Qts. 

Lbs. 

Qts. 

29 

Lbs. 
62.3 

Qts. 

Lbs. 

Qts. 

Lbs. 

I 

2.15 

57 

122.4 

8s 

182.5 

3 

4.3 

30 

64.4 

58 

124.5 

86 

184.6 

3 

6.4 

31 

66.5 

59 

126.6 

87 

186.8 

4 

8.6 

32 

68.7 

60 

128.8 

88 

188.9 

5 

10.7 

33 

70.8 

61 

130.9 

89 

191.0 

6 

12.9 

34 

73 -o 

62 

133-1 

90 

193-2 

7 

15.0 

35 

75-1 

63 

135-2 

91 

195-3 

8 

17.2 

36 

77-3 

64 

137-4 

02 

197-5 

9 

19-3 

37 

79-4 

65 

139-5 

93 

190.6 

lO 

21-5 

38 

81.6 

66 

141. 7 

94 

201  8 

II 

23.6 

39 

83.7 

67 

143.8 

95 

203.9 

12 

25.8 

40 

85.9 

63 

146.0 

96 

206.1 

13 

27.9 

41 

88.0 

69 

14S.1 

^? 

208.2 

14 

30.1 

42 

90.2 

70 

150-3 

98 

210.4 

15 

32.2 

43 

92-3 

71 

152-4 

99 

212.5 

16 

34.3 

44 

94-5 

72 

i5-<.6 

100 

214.7 

17 

36.5 

45 

96.6 

73 

156-7 

200 

429.3 

18 

38.6 

46 

98.7 

74 

158.8 

300 

644.0 

19 

40.8 

47 

100.9 

75 

161  0 

400 

858  6 

<  20 

42.9 

48 

103.0 

76 

163.1 

500 

1073-3 

21 

45-1 

49 

105.2 

77 

165.3 

600 

1288  0 

22 

47.2 

50 

107-3 

78 

167.4 

700 

1502.6 

23 

49.4 

51 

109.5 

79 

169.6 

800 

1717-3 

24 

51-5 

52 

III. 6 

80 

171.7 

QOO 

193'  9 

25 

53  7 

53 

113-8 

81 

173-9 

1000 

2:46.6 

26 

55.8 

54 

"5-9 

82 

176.0 

27 

58.0 

55 

83 

178.2 

28 

60.1 

56 

120.2 

84 

180.3 

TABLE   FOR   CONVERTING  POUNDS   OF   3IILK 
INTO   QUARTS. 


Lbs. 

Qts. 

Lbs. 

_Qts. 

Lbs. 

Qts. 

Lbs. 

Qts. 

I 

•47 

29 

13-5 

57 

26.6 

39-6 

2 

-93 

30 

14.0 

58 

27.0 

86 

40.1 

3 

1.40 

31 

14.4 

59 

275 

87 

40. 5 

4 

1.86 

32 

14.9 

60 

28.0 

88 

41.0 

5 

2.33 

33 

15-4 

61 

28.4 

89 

41-5 

6 

2  80 

34 

1^.8 

62 

28.9 

90 

41.9 

7 

3-26 

35 

16.3 

63 

29.4 

91 

42  4 

8 

3  73 

36 

16.8 

64 

29.8 

02 

42.9 

9 

4.19 

37 

17.2 

65 

30-3 

93 

43-3 

10 

4  66 

38 

17.7 

66 

30.8 

94 

43-8 

11 

5-13 

39 

18.2 

67 

31.2 

95 

44-3 

12 

5-59 

40 

18.6 

68 

31-7 

96 

44.7 

13 

6.06 

41 

19.1 

69 

32.2 

^l 

45-2 

14 

6.52 

42 

19.6 

70 

32.6 

08 

45-7 

15 

6.9Q 

43 

20.0 

71 

33  I 

99 

46.1 

16 

7.46 

44 

20.5 

72 

33  6 

100 

46.6 

17 

7.92 

45 

21.0 

73 

34  0 

200 

9>-2 

18 

8-39 

46 

21.4 

74 

34  5 

300 

'11-^ 

19 

8  85 

47 

21.9 

7=5 

3.S-0 

400 

186.4 

20 

9-32 

48 

22  4 

76 

35  4 

500 

233.0 

21 

9-79 

49 

22  8 

77 

35  9 

foo 

279.6 

22 

10.3 

50 

23-3 

78 

36.3 

700 

326  2 

23 

10.7 

23-8 

79 

36.8 

800 

3728 

24 

11.2 

52 

24.2 

80 

■37-3 

900 

419.4 

25 

11  7 

53 

24  7 

81 

37-7 

100c 

466.0 

26 

12. 1 

54 

25.2 

82 

38.2 

27 

13.6 

55 

25-6 

83 

38-7 

28 

13.1 

56 

26.  T 

84 

39-1 

CREAM. 


239 


III.    CREAM. 
PERCENTAGE    C03IP0SITI0N    OF   CREAM.     (Konig.) 


Water 

Fat   

Casein,  Albumen,  etc 

Milk  Sugar 

Ash     

Specific  gravity,  t.oio. 


Mean  of  43 
Analyses. 

M 

inimum. 

Maximum. 

68.82 

22.83 

83.23 

22.66 

15.19 

29 -93 

3-76 

.63 

7.88 

423 

•59 

5-52 

■53 

.11 

2.50 

ICO. 00 

PERCENTAGE    COMPOSITION  OF  DAIRY 
PRODUCTS.      (Konig.) 


-J. 

4J 

■St3  E 

rt 

Specific 

Z^^ 

s=^ 

.•3  3 

< 

Gravity. 

Skim -milk,   gfrav- 

ity  creaming  . .. 
Centrifugal   skim- 

5b 

90-43 

.87 

3-26 

4.74 

.70 

I -0357 

milk 

7 

90.60 

-31 

3.06 

5-29 

•74 

1.0350 

Buttermilk 

57 

90.12 

1.09 

4.03 

4.04 

•72 

1.0348 

Whey 

46 

93-38 

-32 

.86 

4-79 

•65 

1.0272 

Preserved  milk ... 

4 

87.97 

3.21 

3.34 

4-74 

.74 

1.0313 

Condensed     milk. 

(no  sugar  added) 

36 

58.99 

12.42 

11.92 

14.49 

2.18 

Condensed     milk, 

(sugar  added).   . 

64 

25.61 

10.35 

11.79 

So.o^* 

2.19 

Scherfif's  condens- 

ed milk 

5 

72.87 

6.6^ 

8.20 

10.63 

1.68 

Lactic    Alco- 

Koumiss        (from 

acid.        hoi. 

mares'  milk)   .. 

43 

90.44 

1.46 

2.24 

1-77 

.42 

.91         I. 91 

Koumiss        (from 

cows'  milk).    .. 

II 

89.20 

1.83 

2.66 

4.09 

•43 

•55         I. 14 

Kephir 

22 

91. 2t 

I   44 

3.49 

2.41 

.68 

1.02           .75 

*  13.84  per  cent  milk-sugar,  36.22  per  cent  cane-sugar. 


240 


DAIRYING. 


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242 


DAIRYING. 


LIST      OF     HAND      AND       POWER       CREA3I.SEPA" 
KATORS  ON    THE  A3IERICAN    MARKET,   1900. 


Name. 

Capacity 

Retail 

Manufacturer 

per  Hour. 

Price. 

or  Agency. 

A.  Hand  or  Dairy  Separators. 

lbs. 

I.  DeLaval'''' Baby'''' or  ^" Dairy'" 

Crea  m-separators. 

Hummingf-bird       (old-style 

"strap'") 

175 

$50  \ 
65 

Do.,  improved  "  Crank"... 

225 

Baby  No.  i  (hollow  bowl).. 

150 

50  ! 

No.  I  (disk  bowl) 

"      No.       2,        improved 
'•Iron-stool  " 

325 
450 

100 

..5  \ 

The  De  Laval  Sep- 
arator Co.,  N.  Y. 
City. 

"  No.2,improv.  higrhframe 

450 

?25 

"  No.  3,    improved    high 

frame 

850 

200 

Dairy  Turbine 

850 

225  J 

2.    U.  S.  Creatn-separators. 

No.  0.   Improved  U.  S.  Sep. 

150-175 

50  1 

No.  8.            "             "       •• 

225-250 

65    1 

Vermont  Farm  Ma- 

No. 7.            "             "       " 

275-300 

85  i- 

chine      Co.,    Bel- 

No. 6.            "             '•       " 

350-400 

100      1 

lows  Falls,  Vt. 

No.  5.            "             "       " 

450-500 

125  J 

3.     The     Empire     Creavt-sepa- 

rators. 

The  Empire  Record 

110 

40  1 

Empire  Crown  No.  1 

165 

60    1 

U.    S.    Butter    Ex- 

Improved Mikado   ...   

275 

85*  1 

105*  r 

tractor  Co.,  New- 

Empire Crown  No.  2 

350 

ark,  N.  J. 

Empire  No.  5 

650 

175*  J 

Empire  Crown  No.  4 

4.  Sharpies  Farm  Creavt-sepa- 

rators. 

Little  Giant  No.  i 

r„ 

125 

200 

"          '•      No.  2 

Safety  Hand  No.  i 

300 

100 

P.      M.      Sharpies, 

"            "      No.  2 

600 

150 

West  Chester,  Pa. 

The  WHS    Hand    Separa- 

tor  

300 

75  J 

5.   Victoria     Separators    (three 

\ 

Dairymen's  Supply 

styles) 

100-350 

80-125  \ 

Co., Philadelphia, 

The  Empress  Separator.    .. 

750 

225 

Pa. 

6.  The  Eclipse  Crenm-separator 
Nos.  0—5  (6  styles) 

j-    80-550 

30-150  - 

The  C.  L.  Chap- 
man Separator 
Works,  Erie,  Pa. 

7.    The  Knee  land  Omega  Hand- 

) 

s 

Kneeland      Crystal 

Separator. 

\  260-600 

65-1^0  \ 

Creamery         Co., 

No.  I  Jr.— No.  4  Jr.  (5  styles) 

\ 

\ 

Lansing,  Mich. 

8.  American   Cream-separator 

No.  \ 

250 
350 
600 

65  ) 

100       V 

Am.  Separator  Co., 
Bainbridge,  N.  Y. 

No.  2 

No.  3  

150   s 

Complete. 


CREAM.  243 

HAND  AND   POWER  CREAM-SEPARATORS— (C(?«.)- 


Name. 

Capacity 

Retail 

Manufacturer 

per  Hour. 

Price. 

or  Agency. 

Hand  or  Dairy  Separators. 

(Continued). 

lbs. 

q.  Davis  Creafu-sefarators. 

( 

Davis  Cream  Sepa- 

4 styles 

200-800 

$75-200  -< 

rator  Co., Chicago, 

lo.   The  Reid  Hand  Separators^ 
2  styles 

(    200-250 
1    350-400 

85      1. 

111. 
A.    H.  Reid,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

125      S 

Ti.  Alexandra    Cream-separa- 

tors. 

No.  12 

160 
250 

50     ) 

70   y 

R.  A.  Lister  &  Co., 

No.  11^ 

Ltd.,      Montreal, 

No.8 

300 

80   i 

Canada. 

12.  Melotte           Creat7t-se/>ara 

tors.* 

No.  1 

350 

100         ^ 

R.  A.  Lister  &  Co., 

No.  2 

450 

'V'  y 

Ltd.,      Montreal, 

No.  4.  .           

700 
850 

18s  ^ 

Canada. 

No.  5 ; 

B.  Power  Separators. 

I.   Alpha  .Separators. 

Alpha  No.  I,  Belt  Power.. 

3000 

500  "1 

No.  9,     "                "      .. 

4500 

750   1 

"       No.i,  Steam  Turbine 

3000 

525 

The  De  Laval  Sep- 

No. 2,     •• 

4500 

800 
350  f 

arator   Co.,  N.  Y. 

Alpha  Acme,  Belt  Power.. 

1750 

City. 

"     Steam  Turbine 

1750 

375 

Standard,  Belt  Power   ..    .. 

1200 

250  1 

Turbine...., 

1200 

275  J 

2.  Russian  Steam  Separators. 

The  Standard  Russian 

1200-1500 

350  1 

The  Imperial            "      ... 

2000-2500 

500  1 

Standard  Belt  Separators. 

1 

The  Standard  Belt 

I 200-1 500 

300 

The  Imperial      "     

Sharpies        Tubular       Sepa- 
rators. 

2000-2500 

SCO      , 

P.      M.       Sharpies, 
West  Chester,  Pa. 

Sharpies  Tubular  No,  9 

900 

250 

;;         ;'       No.  25... 

2500 

525 

No.  40... 

4000 

750 

No.  60... 

6000 

950          J 

3.    U.  S.  Cream-separators. 

No.  0  Improved  U.  S.  Sepa- 
rator. Belt 

|-  2600-3000 

No.  0  Improved  U.  S.  Sepa- 
rator, Steam  Turbine  . . . 

>•  2600-3000 

625 

No,  I  Improved  U.  S.  Sepa- 
rator   

>  2300-2500 
>•  2300-2500 

400            \- 

Vermont  Farm  Ma- 
chine     Co.,     Bel- 

No. I  Improved  U.  S.  Sepa- 

lows Falls,  Vt. 

rator,  Steam  Turbine   .. 

525 

No.  2  Improved  U.  S.  Sepa- 
rator, Belt     

/•  1000-1300 

350 

Sold  in  Canada  only, 


244  DAIRYING. 

HAND  AND    POAVER  CREAM-SEPARATORS— (C^w.)- 


Name. 

Capacity 

Retail 

Manufacture. 

per  Hour. 

Price 

or  Agency. 

Power  SEPAi?ATORS— (C^«/'^). 

lbs. 

3.    U.  S.  Creanfseparators. 

{Continued). 

No.  2  Improved  U.  S.  Sepa- 
rator, Steam  Turbine 

1 

1000-1300 

$375 

1 

No.  3  Improved  U.  S.  Sepa- 
rator (high  frame) 

650-700 

200 

1 
1- 

Vermont  Farm  Ma- 
chine     Co.,     Bel- 

No. 3  U.  S.    Cream-separa- 

lows Falls,  Vt. 

tor  (low  frame) 

650-700 

225 

No.  3  Improved  U.  S.  Sepa- 
rator, Steam  Turbine... 

1 

640-700 

225 

J 

4.   Reid  Improved  Danish  Sep- 
aviitor 

2500 

500 

A.  H.  Reid,    Phila- 

The   Reid    Steam  Turbine 

delphia,  Pa. 

Separator 

400 

125 

J 

5.  Columbia   Creaju-separators 

( 

Columbia       Cream 

(three  styles) 

300-600 

100-150  ■( 

Separator  Co., 
Avon,  N.  Y. 

6.    The     Empire     Cream-sepa- 

rators. 

Empire  "  12,"  Belt  Power. 

1300-1500 

300 

1 
\ 

U.    S.    Butter    Ex- 

Empire "  12,"  Steam   Tur- 

tractor Co..  New- 

bine  

1300-1500 
2800-3000 

325 
500 

ark,  N.  J. 

Empire  "  25'''' 

J 

7.    Victoria   Power  Separators. 

Dairymen's  Supply 

Improved  Belt  Power 

1000 

250 

■ 

Co.,  Philadelphia, 

Empress  Power 

3500 

500 

Pa. 

8.    The  Eclipse  Separators. 

I 

The  L.  S.  Chapman 

No.  6-9  (four  styles) 

800-3000 

225-600 s 

Separator  Works, 
Erie,  Pa. 

9.  Alexandra   Steam   Turbine 

\ 

Separators.* 

{ 

No.  4 

600 

250 

f 

R.  A.  Lister  &  Co., 
Lid.,  Montreal, 
Canada. 

No  oii,        

750 
1000 

275 

No'^     ■ 

375 
475 

No.  2 

2000 

*  Prices  include  separator  and  boiler. 

FORMULAS    FOR    FINDING    THE    FAT    CONTENT 
OF  CREAM. 

Fleischmann' s  formula  : 

.  f  .  •                         /■         ioo(/-/i)   ,     . 
Per  cent  fat  in  cream  =  / a  =  ■ — r/^, 

where  J?  =  per  cent  of  cream  obtained,  /  =  per  cent  fat  in 
milk,/i  =  per  cent  fat  in  skim-milk  ;  or 
looF 


A 


AJ^ 


.B, 


CREAM.  245 

where  F—  per  cent  of  fat  in  butter,  B  —  yield  of  butter 
from  lOO  lbs.  of  milk,  A  =■  percentage  churning.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  of  creaming  these  formulas  may  be 
simplified  to 

/a  =  6.67/  -  1.42, 

/^  =  5.77^. 

Fortmila  for  finding  the  per  cent  cream  to  be  separated  when 
a  certain  fat  content  in  the  cream  is  7t/a«/^^  (Fleischmann): 

_  ioo(/  -  /,). 

/,  /i  ,  and /a  =  per  cent  of  fat  in  full  milk,  skim-milk,  and 
cream,  respectively. 

HANDLING  AND  CARE  OF.  CREAM  SEPARATORS. 

By  J.  D.  Frederiksen,  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  Manager  Chr.  Hansen's 
Laboratory. 

In  selecting  a  separator,  local  conditions,  space  at  dis- 
posal, nearness  to  its  manufacturer  who  can  put  it  up, 
be  held  responsible,  and  quickly  attend  to  repairs,  etc., 
may  be  of  importance,  and  the  following  points  should  be 
considered: 

Thorough  Separation.  —  All  manufacturers  claim  that 
their  machines  do  perfect  work,  but  they  do  not  always 
come  up  to  the  claims.  Under  normal  conditions  the  meas- 
ure for  thoroughness  of  separation  is  the  contents  of  butter-fat 
in  the  skim-f?iilk  as  ascertaified  by  the  Babcock  test.  The  best 
modern  separators  skim  practically  absolutely  clean,  and 
there  is  now  no  excuse  for  anything  but  perfect  skimming. 
With  normal  milk  at  the  proper  temperature  run  into  the 
machine  at  the  rate  of  the  capacity  claimed  for  it,  no  sepa- 
rator should  leave  more  than  o.ije  of  butter-fat  in  the  ski?n- 
milk,  which  is  the  smallest  percentage  that  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  Babcock  test  with  accuracy. 

The  table  below  gives  the  grand  averages  for  the  per- 
centages of  fat  found  in  the  trials  of  a  number  of  the 
leading  separators,  conducted  at  the  experiment  stations 
of  Delaware,  Cornell  (N.  Y.},  Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Wisconsin. 


246 


DAIRYIKG. 


PER    CENT    FAT  IN    CENTKIl XGAL  SKIM-MILK. 


Style  of  Separator, 


Butter  Accumulator 

Columbia  Cream  Separator 

Raid's  Impr.  Danish  Separator 

Danish- Weston  "         

De  Laval  Alpha  No.  I        "        

•'         Alpha  Acme        "         

"         Alpha  Turbine   "         

"         Alpha  Baby  No.  2  Separator.   . 
"         Alpha  Baby  No.  3  "         .   . 

"         Horizontal  Separator 

Jumbo  Separator. 

Sharpies  Russian  Separator 

'•         Imperial  "  

U.  S.  Butter  Extractor  Sep.  No.  i 

Do.  (as  separator) 

U.S.  Butter  Extr.  Sep.  No.  2 ■. 

Do.  No.  3 

U.  S.  Separator  No.  i  

Do.  No.  3 

Do.  No.  5 

Victoria,  30  gal.  Separator 

Do.      70  gal.         "         


Aver;iges  of  Trials  at 

American  Experiment 

Stations. 


Number 
of  Trials. 


Per  cent 

Fat  in 

Skim-milk. 


21 

.09 

51 

.OQ 

112 

.08 

7 

.125 

9 

19 

4 

.21 

34 

.24 

30 

•34 

5 

.24 

2 

.14 

8 

•34 

ID 

.21 

9 

•17 

21 

.10 

27 

.13 

25 

.22 

With  the  constant  improvement  in  machines  it  is  not 
difficult  to  find  separators  which  will  do  perfect  work. 

Simplicity,  dii7-ability  and  safety  of  construction  are  con- 
siderations of  vital  importance.  The  separator  must  be 
simple  in  construction  so  as  to  be  easy  to  handle,  to  clean, 
and  to  oil.  It  must  be  durable,  so  that  it  will  need  but  few 
repairs,  and,  first  of  all,  it  must  be  absolutely  safe.  Too 
many  deplorable  fatal  accidents  are  already  due  to  burst- 
ing separator  bowls,  and  too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on 
the  demand  that  the  machine  must  by  strongly  built,  of  first- 
class  material  and  workmanship,  so  that  accidents  are 
made  impossible  with  reasonably  careful  handling. 

As  the  pressure  on  the  circumference  of  the  bowl  increases 
with  the  square  of  the  speed,  it  is  evident  that  the  modern 
high-speed  separators  are  exposed  to  a  tremendous  strain 
— in  fact  the  tensile  strain  in  some  of  them  is  as  high  as 
20,000  to  30,000  lbs.  to  the  square  inch.  Fortunately,  the  im- 
provements in  bearings  and  other  features  of  construction 


CUtJAM. 


24' 


which  have  enabled  manufacturers  to  increase  the  speed, 
have  caused  them  at  the  same  time  to  reduce  the  diameter 
of  the  bowl,  which  makes  the  modern  machine  much  safer 
than  the  first  crude  and  heavy  separators. 

Power. — Considering  its  capacity,  a  well-built  separator 
requires  comparatively  little  power,  whether  coal  or 
muscle.  But  as  either  is  money,  it  is  a  matter  of  impor- 
tance that  none  be  wasted.  Many  so-called  hand  separa- 
tors are  altogether  too  heavy  to  run  by  hand,  hence  in 
selecting  one  see  that  it  is  easy  to  keep  it  running  for 
several  hours.  The  tests  made  at  the  experiment  stations 
by  dynamometer,  as  well  as  by  measuring  the  steam  con- 
sumed, show  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  steam  wasted  in 
a  creamery  above  that  actually  required  to  drive  the  separa- 
tor; that  *' the  turbines  use  steam  extravagantly,  but  that 
the  small  engine  of  the  creamery  uses  it  still  more  extrava- 
gantly." Due  allowance  must  therefore  be  made  for  this 
waste  in  comparing  results  obtained  by  various  methods 
of  testing.  The  following  table  gives  some  of  the  results 
published  by  the  stations: 

Horse-power  per  1000  lbs.  Milk. 


Style  of  Separator. 

Dela- 
ware. 

New 
York. 

Ver- 
mont. 

Wisconsin. 

Butter  Accumulator        ....       ... 

2.69 
3-17 

■"i:83"' 

2-45 

Columbia  Cream  Separator. 

1-52 

2  12 

De  Laval  Standard        

"         Alpha  No.  I 

"         Alpha  Acme 

0.79 

0.98 
0.46 

"         Baby  No.  2 

"             "      No.  3 

0-37 

0.26 

■■i:87" 

1-37 

United  States  No.  i 

No.  3 

0.76 

1. 12 
0.63 
0.72 

No.  5 

Victoria  700  lbs 

2.78 

"        io  ffals 

0.74 
0.85 

20  gals.                    

1.47  to  1.79 

1 .42 

Sharpies  Imperial              

"        Russian 

1.75  to  2. II 

These  tests  are  made  with  single   machines   and  do  not 
guarantee  that  all  separators  of  the  same  makes  consume 


248 


DAIRYING. 


the  same  power  or  steam.  The  accumulating  results  of 
such  trials  being  compiled,  however,  become  a  guide  in 
estimating  the  value  of  the  various  machines  in  the 
market.  As  between  belt  and  turbine  (or  direct  steam) 
power,  the  former  is  preferable  in  large  creameries.  In 
small  plants  one  is  about  as  economical  as  the  other,  and 
the  choice  may  depend  upon  whether  an  engine  is  needed 
J  for  churning,  butter-worker,  pump,  and  other  purposes,  or 
you  can  do  without  it. 

Capacity.  —  In  selecting  a  separator  it  is  best  to  have 
plenty  of  capacity.  In  a  large  creamery  it  is  better  to 
have  two  separators  of  moderate  size  than  one  very  large 
machine.  Only  in  very  large  creameries  may  separators 
of  largest  capacity  be  preferable.  The  capacity  should  be 
such  as  to  finish  the  day's  work  in  4  to  6  hours  at  the  time 
when  there  is  most  milk.  In  the  private  dairy,  using  a 
hand  separator,  the  work  should  require  only  one  hour, 
rather  less.  The  following  would  be  our  idea  of  the  proper 
capacity: 


Largest  Supply  of  Milk 
per  Day,  lbs. 

Number  of 
Machines. 

Capacity  of  Each 

Machine,  lbs. 

per  hour. 

Power. 

J      2  or 
1    more 

2 
2 
2 

2,000  to  2,500 

1,500  "  2.000 
1,200  "  1,500 

1,000 

1,200 
600  to  1,000 

600 
300  to  500 

300 
150 

Engine 

<( 

Eng.  or  Turb. 

2,500  "    5,000 

j  Sheep,  or  dog, 
1      or  turbine. 
J  Hand,  or  dog. 

100  "       300 

(     or  sheep. 
Hand 

Less  than   100 

Condition  of  Creatn. — As  discharged  from  the  separator, 
the  cream  should  be 'smooth  and  even,  free  from  froth  and 
of  perfect  **  churnability." 

As  to  cost,  the  best  machine  is  ahvays  the  cheapest  in  the  long 
run.  Repairs,  waste  of  fat  in  the  skim-milk,  of  oil,  and  of 
coal,  by  an  inferior  machine,  will  more  than  make  up  any 
saving  in  first  cost. 


CREAM.  249 

Running  the  Separator. 

The  Operator  should  understand  his  Business. — He  should 
have  thorough  training  in  creameries  as  a  helper  and,  if 
possible,  in  a  dairy  school,  before  undertaking  to  manage 
a  creamery  separator  on  his  own  responsibility.  A  new 
machine  should  be  put  up  and  started  by  the  manufacturer 
or  his  agent,  and  prove  in  perfect  shape  and  efficiency  be- 
fore he  leaves.  Every  manufacturer  gives  detailed  in- 
structions as  to  the  care  of  the  separator,  and  such  an 
instruction  book  should  always  be  at  hand.  The  operator 
of  hand  as  well  as  of  power  machines  should  make  him- 
self familiar  with  every  detail  of  the  construction. 

Condition  and  Tejnperature  of  the  Milk. — Fresh  and  warm 
from  the  cow,  the  milk  is  in  the  best  condition  to  be  skimmed. 
If  it  cannot  be  had  in  that  condition,  it  should  be  aerated 
and  cooled  on  the  farm,  so  that  it  arrives  at  the  creamery 
or  the  dairy  at  not  over  60°.  Then  reheat  it  to  80°  or  85°, 
not  under  75°  and  not  over  90°.  This  heating  is  prefer- 
ably done  in  some  continuous  heater,  as  it  is  dangerous  to 
heat  it  in  bulk,  because  milk  standing  some  time  at  85°  is 
apt  to  spoil.  While  the  separator  will  skim  at  a  lower 
temperature,  either  the  skimming  is  not  clean  or  less  milk 
must  be  run  through  the  machine  in  the  same  time.  Of 
course,  the  milk  must  be  sweet. 

Starting. — Oil  all  bearings  thoroughly,  using  only  the  very 
best  oil.  Ascertain  that  everything  is  in  trim  order,  then 
start  according  to  instructions,  which  vary  for  different 
kinds  of  machines.  Always  start  carefully,  and  where  the 
belt  from  the  intermediate  is  shifted  from  loose  to  fixed 
pulley,  do  it  slowly  and  gradually,  helping  with  the  hand 
on  the  belt  to  start  the  bowl.  When  the  bowl  appears  to 
be  running  at  full  speed  without  shaking,  ascertain  if  it 
really  does  so  by  means  of  the  speed  indicator,  which 
should  always  be  found  on  any  power  machine. 

Never  allow  the  machine  to  run  faster  than  permitted  \>y 
the  manufacturer.  If  you  do,  it  is  at  your  risk  and  at 
the  risk  of  the  lives  of  your  assistants.  Use  the  speed 
indicator  often. 


250  t)AlRYIl^(J. 

See  that  the  feed  of  new  milk  is  correct  and  that  the  /)ro- 
portion  of  creafn  to  milk  is  as  wanted.  Hold  a  quart  meas- 
ure under  the  skim-milk  spout  and  a  measuring  glass  un- 
der the  cream  outlet,  and,  when  the  quart  measure  is  full, 
see  how  much  cream  you  have  in  the  measuring  glass,  tak- 
ing the  time  by  your  watch.  If  you  have  6  ozs.  of  cream 
to  I  quart  of  skim-milk  in  9  seconds,  you  have  taken  6 
parts  of  cream  from  38  of  new  milk,  or  a  little  less  than 
one  sixth,  or  about  16^,  and  you  are  running  at  the  rate 
of  950  lbs.  per  hour.  How  large  a  proportion  of  cream  to 
take  from  the  milk  depends  upon  the  richness  of  the  milk 
and  the  consistency  of  cream  desired.  If  you  have  4^ 
milk  and  you  wish  cream  of  2^%  fat,  you  will  take  i 
part  of  cream  from  7  of  new  milk,  or  14^  . 

Keep  the  oil-cups  filled  and  look  frequently  at  all  working 
parts  of  the  machinery.  Well  started  and  regulated,  it 
will  run  uninterrupted  until  all  the  milk  is  skimmed. 
When  the  last  milk  has  entered  the  bowl,  pour  in  suffi- 
cient skim-milk  to  crowd  out  all  the  cream  left.  If  the 
skim-milk  is  removed  from  the  building  while  the  separa- 
tor is  running,  take  samples  fj-equently,  or,  if  it  is  all  left 
after  the  work  is  done,  take  a  few  average  samples  to  test 
with  the  Babcock  juachine,  so  as  to  control  the  day' s  work. 

Stop  the  machine  cautiously,  removing  the  motive  power 
and  letting  the  howl  come  to  a  stand-still  of  itself  without 
applying  any  brake.  Remove  the  skim-milk  left  in  the  bowl 
by  a  siphon  or  otherwise,  take  off  the  covers,  etc.,  and  lift 
out  the  bowl. 

Cleaning. — First  rinse  the  bowl  and  other  parts  which 
have  been  in  contact  with  milk  in  cold  or  tepid  water,  and 
then  scrub  them  in  boiling  water,  frequently  using  some 
solution  of  sal-soda.  Scrub  and  brush  every  corner.  Rinse 
in  clean  boiling  water  and  steam  out  the  tin  covers,  etc. 
Wipe  with  a  cloth  and  set  the  things  to  dry.  Pump  out 
every  pipe  that  cannot  be  reached  by  hand  and  brush.  If 
possible,  avoid  the  use  of  rubber  hose  to  conduct  the  milk 
from  the  vat  or  heater  to  the  separator,  but  use  open  tin 
conductors  or  short  tin  pipes,  which  can  be  easily  kept 
clean.     Rubber  hose  cannot    be   washed  in   boiling  water 


CREAM, 


251 


or  soda,  and  is  a  source  of  contamination.  Clean  the 
separator  stand  carefully  with  a  cloth  and  wipe  the  spindles, 
etc.  Occasionally  clean  out  the  oil-chambers  with  kerosene 
oil,  and  always  see  to  it  that  no  gum  is  formed  and  that 
the  oil-grooves  and  tubes  are  open. 

If  the  separator  shakes,  or  in  any  way  works  imper- 
fectly, find  the  cause  without  delay  and  remedy  it.  If  you 
fail  to  find  the  fault,  or  you  cannot  remedy  it  yourself, 
notify  the  manufacturer  or  his  agent,  and  have  him  attend 
to  it  at  once. 

Treatment  of  the  Crea^n. — As  the  cream  leaves  the  separa- 
tor, it  should  at  once  be  cooled  to  50°  or  lower.  This  in- 
sures "  body  "  in  the  butter,  and  should  not  be  neglected, 
at  least  not  unless  the  cream  is  thoroughly  chilled  after  it 
is  ripened,  before  churning. 

LOSS    OF   BUTTER   CAUSED    BY   INEFFICIENT 
SKIMMING. 

If  three-tenths  of  one  per  cent  of  fat  is  left  in  the  skim- 
milk,  instead  of  two-tenths,  in  a  separator  creamery  receiv- 
ing 1000  lbs.  of  milk  a  day,  there  will  be  a  loss  of  about  340 
lbs.  of  butter  for  the  whole  year,  on  the  supposition  that 
1000  lbs.  of  milk  yield  800  lbs.  of  skim-milk,  and  i  lb.  of 
butter  contains  .86  lbs.  of  fat.  If  the  separation  is  still 
poorer,  greater  losses  will  be  sustained,  as  will  be  seen  in 
the  table  given  below.     (Friis.) 


Excess  of  Fat  Left  in  Skim-milk. 

Lbs.  of  Milk 

per  Day. 

.05  per  cent. 

.10  per  cent. 

.20  per  cent. 

.30  per  cent. 

Loss  of  Butter  During  Whole  Year. 

1,000 

170 

340 

680 

1,020 

2,000 

340 

680 

1360 

2,040 

3,000 

510 

1020 

2040 

3,060 

4,000 

680 

1360 

2720 

4.089 

5,000 

850 

1700 

3400 

5,100 

6,000 

1020 

2040 

4080 

0,120 

7,000 

1 190 

2380 

4760 

7,140 

8,000 

1360 

2729 

5440 

8,160 

9,000 

1530 

3060 

6120 

9,t8o 

10,000 

1700 

3400 

6800 

10,200 

252  DAIRYING. 

RETiATTOX  OF  FAT  CONTENT  OF  SEPARATOR 
SKI3I-MILK  AND  SPEED  OF  BOWL,  QUANTITY 
OF  MILK  SEPARATED,  AND  TEMPERATURE 
OF  THE  MILK. 

Fleischmann  gives  the  following  formula  for  ascertaining 
the  fat  content  of  separator  skim-milk, /"  being  ;he  per  cent 
fat  in  the  skim-milk,  M  the  quantity  of  milk  skimmed  per 
hour,  u  the  speed  of  the  bowl,  and  t  the  temperature  of 
the  milk: 


Vm 


f=c  1J!l  X  1.035 

r  is  a  constant  which  must  be  determined  for  each  machine; 
Hittcher  found  its  value,  in  the  case  of  three  different  ma- 
chines, as  follows:  480,152;  547,800;  363,430.  The  results 
obtained  by  the  use  of  the  formula  seem  to  agree  fairly 
well  with  chemical  analysis  of  the  skim-milk  w^here  care 
is  taken  in  determining  the  various  factors  entering  into 
the  calculation. 

STEAM  BOILER  AND  ENGINE  MANAGEMENT. 

By  Frof,  A.  W.  Richter,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 
Boiler. 
Fe^d  Apparatus. — Every  boiler  should  be  provided  with  a 
check-valve,  placed  between  the  feed  apparatus  and  boiler,  and 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  have  the  weight  of  the  valve  assist  in 
closing  it.  Between  this  check-valve  and  boiler  there  should  be 
an  additional  globe  or  gate-valve  which  may  be  closed,  thus 
permitting  repairing  or  cleaning  of  the  check-valve  while  the 
boiler  is  in  operation. 

Water  Supply. — Feed-water  should  enter  a  boiler  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  plates  do  not  receive  the  direct  impact  of  cold 
water.  The  usual  practice  is  to  have  the  feed  enter  through 
the  blow-off  pipe,  thus  preventing  this  pipe  from  clogging.  The 
feed  supply  should  be  regulated  so  as  to  keep  the  water  level 
as  stationary  as  possible,  The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  water  level  does  not  fall  below  the  top  of  the  flues.  Neg- 
lect in  this  direction  will  cause  the  metal  to  become  overheated 
and  consequently  weakened,  causing  leakage  of  joints  and  m- 


CREAM.  253 

creased  wear  and  tear,  but  more  often  resulting  in  an  explosion 
of  a  more  or  less  serious  nature. 

Water-glass  and  Water-gauges. — Every  boiler  should  have 
three  water-gauges  in  addition  to  a  water-glass  ;  these  are 
usually  attached  to  a  hollow  cast-iron  cylinder  or  tube  con- 
nected with  the  water  and  steam  spaces. 

The  water-glass  should  be  blown  out  daily,  and,  if  clogged, 
can  be  safely  cleaned  with  a  bent  wire. 

In  no  case  should  the  water  glass  alone  be  depended  upon  to 
indicate  the  water  level. 

Steam-gauge. — Each  boiler  should  be  provided  with  a  steam- 
gauge,  which  gauge  should  be  directly  connected  with  it. 

Safety-valve. — Every  boiler  should  be  provided  with  a  safety- 
valve  having  direct  communication  with  the  steam  space,  and 
there  should,  moreover,  be  an  intervening  valve.  Some  of 
the  most  disastrous  explosions  can  be  traced  to  faulty  ar- 
rangement in  this  respect.  The  valve  thoughtlessly  left 
closed  after  cleaning  or  repairs  prevents  the  safety-valve 
from  relieving  the  pressure  when  it  rises  above  the  safe 
working  pressure  of  the  boiler. 

Safety-valves  are  of  two  kinds :  spring  and  lever  safety- 
valves.  Of  the  two  valves  the  lever-valve  has  the  most  dis- 
advantages, one  of  the  most  important  being  the  ease  with 
which  it  may  be  made  useless  by  adding  an  additional  weight 
to  that  already  provided,  in  order  to  keep  the  valve  on  its  seat, 
and  therefore  greatly  increasing  the  pressure  at  which  it  will 
blow  off. 

A  safety-valve  should  be  raised  each  day  by  hand  so  as  to 
allow  steam  to  escape;  this  prevents  clogging  and  rusting. 

The  dealer  will  usually  set  the  spring-valve  so  that  it  will 
blow  off  at  the  desired  pressure.  It  can  be  adjusted,  however, 
by  loosening  or  tightening  a  screw  provided  for  that  purpose. 

The  lever-valve  may  be  set  with  the  aid  of  the  following 
formula: 

_  ^^^  -Vb-  wc^ 
~  W  ' 

/—  distance  from  weight  to  fulcrum; 

^  =         "  "     valve  centre  to  fulcrum; 

c  =  distance  from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  lever  of  the  fill- 


254  DAIRYING. 

P  =  boiler  pressure; 

A  =  area  of  valve; 

V=  weight  of  valve; 

zv  =      "       "  lever, 

JV  =  weight  hung  upon  the  lever. 

Firing. — Firing  should  be  gradual,  and  the  grate  kept  com- 
pletely covered  with  coal  or  ashes.  The  fire  should  not  be  more 
than  four  or  five  inches  deep  unless  the  pieces  of  coal  are  large, 
in  which  case  the  depth  may  be  increased. 

The  fire-doors  and  flue-doors  should  not  be  opened  in  order  to 
keep  down  the  steam  pressure.  This  practice  not  only  wastes 
fuel  but  is  injurious  to  the  boiler,  and  will  not  be  necessary  if 
the  boiler  is  properly  attended  to. 

Priming  or  Foaming. — Foaming  is  a  rapid  disturbance  of  the 
water,  in  consequence  of  which  it  rises  in  the  boiler  in  the  form 
of  spray  or  foam;  it  is  usually  caused  by  dirty  water,  presence 
of  oil,  etc.,  the  boiler  not  having  been  cleaned  for  some  time  or 
not  thoroughly  cleaned.  Foaming  may,  however,  be  due  to 
other  causes,  such  as  too  small  a  steam  space,  sudden  demand 
of  a  great  quantity  of  steam,  etc.  In  case  a  boiler  foams  all 
steam  connections  should  be  shut  off  and  the  fire  dampened  by 
means  of  a  fresh  supply  of  live  coal  or  ashes.  These  precau- 
tions will  usually  suffice  to  allow  the  water  to  settle,  and  to 
enable  one  to  ascertain  the  true  water  level.  If  the  glass  shows 
a  small  amount  of  water,  start  the  pump,  or  injector,  and  fill  the 
boiler  to  a  point  between  the  second  and  third  gauge.  The 
boiler  may  then  be  blown  off  to  the  first  gauge  by  means  of  the 
surface  blow-off,  if  one  be  present,  and  if  not  present  the  regular 
blow-off  valve  may  be  used.  This  operation  being  repeated, 
the  impurities  are  gradually  diminished,  but  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  water  level  does  not  fall  below  the  top  of  the  flues. 
The  boiler  can  now  be  used  as  before,  but  in  all  cases  it  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  as  soon  as  possible. 

Removal  of  Scale. — Potatoes,  about  eight  or  ten  in  number, 
are  sometimes  placed  in  the  boiler  after  cleaning.  Soda  or 
kerosene  may  also  be  injected  with  the  feed-water  in  quantity  to 
be  determined  by  observation.  Boiler  compounds  should  be 
used  with  caution,  and  when  used  should  be  obtained  from  a 
reliable  dealer.  Too  great  a  quantity  of  any  of  the  above  will 
be  harrnful. 


CEEAM.  255 

Cleaning. — The  interval  during  which  a  boiler  requires  no 
cleaning  depends  upon  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  water 
evaporated.  Under  usual  conditions,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
best  results,  a  boiler  should  be  cleaned  every  six  or  eight  weeks. 

If  a  boiler  is  to  be  cleaned  it  should  be  allowed  to  stand  until 
it  is  partially  cooled  off.  When  blown  out  cold  the  metal  in  the 
interior  will  usually  be  found  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  soft 
deposit,  which  can  easily  be  scraped  off  or  washed  off  with  a 
hose  and  stream  of  water. 

If  a  boiler  be  blown  off  while  the  metal  is  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture, the  deposited  matter  is  usually  baked  and  forms  a  solid  and 
hard  coating,  increasing  rapidly  if  not  carefully  removed  by  the 
process  of  chipping. 

Boiler  Power. — The  manner  in  which  the  horse-power  of  a 
boiler  is  usually  calculated  is  far  from  satisfactory,  depending 
rather  upon  its  size  than  its  power  of  evaporation. 

In  1884  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 
adopted  the  following  definite  standard: 

"  A  horse-power  shall  be  equivalent  to  an  evaporation  of 
thirty  pounds  of  water  into  dry  steam  per  hour  from  feed- 
water  at  100°  Fahrenheit,  and  under  a  pressure  of  70  lbs.  per 
square  inch  above  the  atmosphere." 

Steain- engine. — The  engine  should  be  provided  with  a  gov- 
ernor to  regulate  its  speed,  a  lubricator  to  oil  valve  and  piston, 
and  a  suflScient  number  of  oil  cups,  so  that  all  bearings  may  be 
properly  oiled. 

Starting  the  Engine. — Before  starting,  all  bearings  should  be 
supplied  with  oil,  and  all  waste  pipes  connected  with  cylinder 
and  steam-chest  opened.  The  engine  should  then  be  started 
slowly,  so  as  to  allow  the  water  to  escape.  A  quantity  of  steam 
will  always  condense  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  cold 
cylinder- walls,  in  addition  to  the  water  already  present  in  the 
steam-pipe.  This  water  does  not  pass  off  as  readily  as  steam, 
neither  can  it  be  compressed  to  any  great  extent.  Therefore, 
if  more  water  be  present  in  the  cylinder  than  will  fill  the  clear- 
ance space,  and  this  water  not  be  allowed  to  escape,  the  piston 
moving  towards  the  end  of  its  stroke  will  strike  the  water,  and 
consequently  be  compelled  to  stop.  The  greater  the  speed  of 
the  piston  as  it  advances,  the  greater  the  force  with  which  it 
strikes  the  water,  resuiting  in  many  cases  in  a  broken  cylinder- 
head. 


256  ,  DAIRYING. 

It  is  well  to  have  a  waste-pipe  connected  to  the  steam-pipe  at 
a  point  just  above  the  engine- valve,  in  order  that  the  water 
which  has  collected  in  the  steam  pipe  may  be  blown  out  before 
opening  the  steam-valve. 

After  the  engine  has  been  in  operation  for  a  minute  or  two 
the  waste-valves  should  be  closed. 

Horse-power. — The  horse-power  of  an  engine  may  be  calcu- 
lated by  means  of  the  following  formula: 

H.  P.  =  ^'■'"^ 


33000 


H.  P.  =  horse  power; 

P  =  mean  effective  pressure  in  the  cylinder; 
Z,  =  twice  the  length  of  the  stroke,  in  feet; 
a  =  area  of  piston  in  square  inches; 
n  =  number  of  revolutions  per  minute. 

ON  THK  PRESERVATION  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM 
BY  HEAT. 

By  Dr.  H.  L.  Russell,  of  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station, 
Author  of  "  Dairy  Bacteriology". 

On  account  of  the  innumerable  bacteria  that  gain  access 
to  milk  during  the  process  of  milking,  and  subsequent  to 
that  time,  and  the  rapid  increase  of  the  same  in  this  nutri- 
tious fluid,  this  material  universally  undergoes  fermentative 
changes,  the  rapidity  of  which  is  largely  dependent  upon 
the  surrounding  temperature.  To  increase  the  keeping 
quality  of  milk,  it  is  necessary  to  annihilate  these  bacteria 
or  keep  them  under  influences  unfavorable  to  their  growth. 

Heat  has  been  found  to  be  the  most  efficacious  agent  in 
preserving  milk  in  its  natural  condition.  It  is  applied  in 
two  ways,  viz.,  i.  Pasteurization,  where  the  milk  or  cream 
is  heated  for  a  short  time  (20-30  min.)  at  a  temperature  near 
the  coagulating  point  of  the  proteid  constituents  of  the  milk 
(i50°-i6o°  F.).  2.  Sterilization,  where  the  temperature  ap- 
proximates or  exceeds  the  boiling-point  and  is  applied  for 
a  longer  time. 

The  object  in  both  cases  is  to  kill  the  bacteria  present  in 
the  milk. 


CREAM.  257 

Sterilization  accomplishes  this  most  successfully,  but  it 
changes  the  proteid  compounds  so  that  the  milk  has  an  un* 
desirable  "  cooked  "  flavor  and  odor. 

This  defect  is  not  found  in  pasteurized  milk,  and  if  prop^ 
erly  handled,  milk  treated  by  this  process  will  remain  sweet 
from  4  to  8  days. 

For  use  in  the  near  future  the  pasteurized  product  is,  on 
the  whole,  the  most  satisfactory;  the  sterilized  material  being 
best  adapted  for  export  purposes. 

The  essential  condition  in  pasteurization  is  that  the  pas- 
teurizing temperature  shall  exceed  the  thermal  death  point 
(the  temperature  at  which  growing  bacteria  are  destroyed) 
of  disease-producing  as  well  as  fermentative  bacteria.  This 
temperature  for  most  forms  is  about  140°  F.,  but  certain  dis- 
ease organisms  like  the  tubercle  germ  of  tuberculosis  is  not 
killed  below  149"  F.  for  30  minutes,  or  155°  F.  for  15  minutes. 
As  this  germ  is  often  found  in  milk  from  tuberculous  cows, 
prudence  dictates  the  use  of  this  temperature  as  a  standard 
for  the  pasteurization  of  milk  and  cream.  The  proteids  in 
the  milk  are  slightly  affected  at  this  temperature,  but  if  the 
milk  is  thoroughly  chilled,  the  "cooked"  flavor  disappears. 

The  application  of  this  temperature  kills  only  the  growing 
bacteria,  and  does  not  affect  the  latent  spores.  If  after 
being  heated  tfie  milk  is  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  and  is  left 
at  a  comparatively  warm  temperature  (exceeding  55^  F.), 
these  spores  germinate  and  soon  change  the  character  of  the 
milk,  so  that  the  value  of  the  heating  process  is  lost.  To  be 
efficient,  it  is  necessary  to  rapidly  cool  the  pasteurized  prod- 
uct below  the  germinating  point  of  the  spores,  for  if  they  are 
once  allowed  to  sprout,  they  will  develop  slowly  at  a  very 
low  temperature. 

In  pasteurizing  milk  or  cream,  the  apparatus  should  be 
constructed  so  that  a  definite  quantity  of  the  fluid  can  be 
held  at  any  desired  temperature  for  any  length  of  time,  and 
during  the  process  protected  from  infection  from  the  air. 
The  apparatus  must  also  be  made  so  as  to  be  easily  cleaned 
and  thoroughly  sterilized  by  steam  throughout.  The  milk 
must  be  protected  from  air  infection  during  its  withdrawal 
from  the  pasteurizing  vat  into    storage  vessels  (cans  and 


258  DAIRTING. 

bottles),  and  should  be  thoroughly  chilled  in  a  refrigerator 
for  several  hours  (better  over  night)  before  being  delivered 
to  the  consumer.  This  chilling  process  should  succeed  the 
heating  operation  as  quickly  as  possible,  as  the  sudden 
transition  in  temperature  from  155°  F.  to  55°  F.  or  less  has 
a  paralyzing  effect  on  the  development  of  those  organisms 
(spores)  that  are  not  killed  by  the  heat.  The  machines  that 
have  been  put  on  the  market  have  for  the  most  part  been 
designed  primarily  from  the  dairyman's  standpoint,  and 
while  they  fulfill  their  requirements  as  to  capacity,  cheap- 
ness, etc.,  yet  they  cannot  in  general  be  relied  upon  to  treat 
the  milk  in  a  way  so  as  to  free  it  with  certainty  from  all  pos- 
sible disease-producing  bacteria.  The  Potts'  Pasteurizer, 
which  has  been  sold  quite  extensively  in  this  country  during 
late  years,  may,  however,  be  considered  an  entirely  satis- 
factory and  practical  machine. 

Pasteurization  in  this  country  is  applied  with  great  suc- 
cess to  milk  and  cream  where  these  products  are  used  in 
the  liquid  form.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  in  this  country, 
but  much  more  widely  in  continental  Europe,  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  cream  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  by  the  use  of  a 
pure  culture-starter.  It  can  also  be  used  advantageously 
in  the  hot  months  for  increasing  the  length  of  time  that 
by-products  of  the  factory  like  skim-milk  and  whey  may  be 
preserved. 

Pasteurization,  as  well  as  sterilization,  reduces  the  body, 
consistency,  of  milk  and  cream,  and  these  products  therefore 
seem  thinner  after  having  been  subjected  to  the  process  of 
heating  than  before.  To  obviate  this.  Dr.  Babcock  and 
the  writer  in  1896  recommended  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  a  solution  of  sucrate  of  lim.e  ("  viscogen  ")  to 
the  milk  or  cream,  which  will  restore  the  consistency  of  the 
products,  and  in  case  of  cream,  greatly  increase  its  whip- 
ping quality.  (See  Bull.  No.  54  or  thirteenth  report  of 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.) 


CREAM.  259 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  STERILIZATION  OF  MILK. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

The  sterilization  of  milk  for  children,  now  quite  exten- 
sively practised  in  order  to  destroy  the  injurious  germs 
which  it  may  contain,  can  be  satisfactorily  accomplished 
with  very  simple  apparatus.  The  vessel  containing  the 
milk,  which  may  be  the  bottle  from  which  it  is  to  be  used 
or  any  other  suitable  vessel,  is  placed  inside  of  a  larger 
vessel  of  metal,  which  contains  the  water.  If  a  bottle,  it  is 
plugged  with  absorbent  cotton,  if  this  is  at  hand,  or  in  its 
absence,  other  clean  cotton  will  answer.  A  small  fruit-jar 
loosely  covered  may  be  used  instead  of  a  bottle.  The  re- 
quirements are  simply  that  the  interior  vessel  shall  be  raised 
about  half  an  inch  above  the  bottom  of  the  other,  and  that 
the  water  shall  reach  nearly  or  quite  as  high  as  the  milk. 
The  apparatus  is  then  heated  on  a  range  or  stove  until  the 
water  reaches  a  temperature  of  155  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
when  it  is  removed  from  the  heat  and  kept  tightly  covered 
for  half  an  hour.  The  milk-bottles  are  then  taken  out  and 
kept  in  a  cool  place.  The  milk  may  be  used  any  time  within 
twenty-four  hours.  A  temperature  of  150  degrees  main- 
tained for  half  an  hour  is  sufficient  to  destroy  any  germs 
likely  to  be  present  in  the  milk,  and  it  is  found  in  practice 
that  raising  the  temperature  to  155  degrees  and  then  allow- 
ing it  to  stand  in  the  heated  water  for  half  an  hour  insures 
the  proper  temperature  for  the  required  time.  The  tempera- 
ture should  not  be  raised  above  155  degrees,  otherwise  the 
taste  and  quality  of  the  milk  will  be  impaired. 

The  simplest  plan  is  to  take  a  tin  pail  and  invert  a  per- 
forated tin  pie-plate  in  the  bottom,  or  have  made  for  it  a 
removable  false  bottom  perforated  with  holes  and  having 
legs  half  an  inch  high  to  allow  circulation  of  the  water. 
The  milk-bottle  is  set  on  this  false  bottom,  and  sufficient 
water  is  put  into  the  pail  to  reach  the  level  of  the  surface 
of  the  milk  in  the  bottle.  A  hole  may  be  punched  in  the 
cover  of  the  pail,  a  cork  inserted,  and  a  chemical  thermom  . 
eter  put  through  the  cork,  so  that  the  bulb  dips  into  the 
water.     The  temperature  can  thus  be  watched  without  re- 


260  DAIRYIN-G. 

moving  the  cover.  If  preferred  an  ordinary  dairy  ther- 
mometer may  be  used  and  the  temperature  tested  from  time 
to  time  by  removing  the  lid.  This  is  very  easily  arranged, 
and  is  just  as  satisfactory  as  the  patented  apparatus  sold 
for  the  same  purpose. 

QUANTITY    OF    WATER   OR  ICE  REQUIRED  FOR 
COOLING    MILK    OR   CREAM.     (Martiny.) 

The  quantity  of  water  or   ice   required  to  cool   milk    or 
cream  may  be  calculated  from  the  following  formulas,  where 

M  =  quantity  of  milk  or  cream  to  be  cooled,  in  lbs. 

t  =  its  temperature. 
W  =  quantity  of  water  required  for  cooling,  in  lbs. 

/=         "  "   ice  "  "          "  "    " 

/'  =  temperature  of  water  or  ice  at  beginning. 

7^=  end  temperature  of  cooled  milk  or  cream. 

r  =  end  temperature  of  cooling  water. 

S  =  specific  heat  of  milk  (.84*)  or  of  cream  (.78*).         ; 
79.25  =:  latent  heat  of  water. 

(a)    Water  required  for  cooling  milk  or  cream — 

1.  Cooled  in  tin  cans  holding  milk  or  cream  to  be  cooled: 

T-t' 

2.  By  application  of  coolers  and  running  water: 

,,,^{Mt-  MT)S 
r  —  t' 

(3)   Ice  required  for  cooling  milk  or  cream — 

{Mt  -  MT)S 


/  = 


T^f  X  79-25 


In  these  formulas  the  influence  of  the  surrounding  air  is 
not  considered. 

♦  Not  determined,  but  considered  approximately  correct. 


BUTTER.  261 


IV.  BUTTER 


BUTTER-MAKING. 

By  H.  B.  GuRLER,  De  Kalb,  111.,  ex-President  111.  State  Dairymen^'s  Assn., 
Author  of  "  American  Dairying." 

Butter  is  made  from  milk.  The  cow  manufactures  the 
milk  from  the  food  she  eats,  hence  the  necessity  of  sound 
food.  Unsound  food  makes  off-flavored  milk  and  poor 
butter.  Some  cows  can  manufacture  food  into  milk  at  a 
profit,  others  cannot;  hence  the  necessity  of  knowing  the 
individuality  of  each  cow,  or  her  ability  to  work  at  a  profit 
to  her  owner. 

At  this  stage  of  the  dairy  work  there  is  no  excuse  for  a 
dairyman  not  knowing  what  each  and  every  cow  is  doing 
for  him,  thus  being  able  to  "weed  out"  the  unprofitable 
ones. 

Be  careful  and  cleanly  in  milking.  Remove  the  milk  to 
a  pure  atmosphere  as  soon  as  drawn  from  the  cows.  If  the 
cream  is  raised  by  gravity  process  be  careful  of  the  sur- 
roundings, as  milk  will  absorb  bad  odors  from  decayed 
vegetables,  the  hog-pen,  the  cow-yard,  the  kerosene-can,  a 
filthy  stable,  from  cooking  in  the  kitchen,  and  various  other 
sources. 

When  milk  is  put  through  the  separator  as  soon  as  it  is 
drawn  from  the  cow  this  source  of  danger  is  removed. 
Cream  from  the  separator  should  be  cooled  immediately  to 
a  temperature  of  60°;  55°  is  better.  A  cooler  that  will 
aerate  at  the  same  time  it  is  cooling  is  very  desirable.  This 
is  a  vital  point  which  many  butter-makers  stumble  over. 
When  through  separating  and  cooling,  temper  the  cream  to 
the  temperature  necessary  to  have  it  ripen  at  the  time  you 
wish  to  churn.  If  it  is  to  be  churned  the  following  day  this 
temperature  should  be  Cs^-yo".  If  the  second  day,  55°-6o°; 
and  if  it  is  to  stand  four  to  seven  days,  cool  to  40°,  if  possi- 


262  DAIRYING. 

ble,  as  soon  as  practicable,  and  hold  at  that  temperature 
until  the  day  before  you  wish  to  churn,  when  it  should  be 
warmed  to  a  temperature  that  will  give  the  right  acidity  by 
the  time  you  wish  to  churn.  This  temperature  will  depend 
on  the  kind  of  cream,  whether  separator  cream  or  cream 
from  some  gravity  process.  Cream  from  shallow  setting 
may  be  sufficiently  ripened  when  taken  from  the  milk.  I 
recommend  the  use  of  Prof.  Farrington's  acid  tablets  for 
testing  the  acidity  of  cream  (see  p.  270).  They  are  a  great 
help  to  a  beginner. 

Churn  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  you  can.  This  will  de- 
pend on  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  cream.  Rich  cream  can 
be  churned  at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  cream  poor 
in  fat.  Cream  from  deep,  cold  setting  may  be  churned  at 
58°  to  62°;  and  thick,  rich  cream  from  shallow  setting  at 
a  much  lower  temperature.  An  ironclad  rule  cannot  be 
made  that  will  fit  all  cases.  The  separator  will  give  cream 
containing  various  per  cent  of  fat,  from  15  to  40  per  cent. 
Separator  cream  containing  15  per  cent  fat  will  need  to  be 
churned  at  about  the  same  temperature  as  deep,  cold  setting 
cream.  Separator  cream  containing  40  per  cent  can  be 
churned  at  a  temperature  of  50",  can  be  gathered  at  50°,  so 
the  buttermilk  will  draw  at  that  temperature.  A  low  tem- 
perature gives  the  most  exhaustive  churning.  At  this  tem- 
perature the  buttermilk  should  contain  no  more  fat  than 
the  average  separator  skim-milk.  Cream  containing  a  large 
per  cent  of  fat  does  not  develop  acid  as  fast  as  cream  with 
more  milk  in  it.  Cool  cream  for  churning  about  two  hours 
before,  so  as  to  let  the  butter-fat  have  time  to  solidify  or 
harden.     This  gives  a  more  waxy  texture  to  the  butter. 

Stop  the  churn  when  the  butter  granules  are  the  size  of 
wheat.  If  the  granules  are  too  small  there  is  danger  of  a 
loss  from  its  passing  through  the  strainer.  Wash  no  more 
than  is  necessary  to  remove  the  buttermilk.  The  colder  it 
is  churned  the  less  washing  is  needed.  When  butter  gathers 
at  54"  one  washing  is  sufficient  ;  if  at  62°  to  64°,  two  or 
three  washings  will  be  needed.  Washing  removes  some 
of  the  delicate  flavor  or  aroma.  Remove  the  water  from 
the  churn  as  soon  as   possible — as  soon  as  it  has  done  it$ 


BUTTEE.  263 

work.  Never  allow  it  to  lie  and  soak  unless  there  is  no 
other  way  of  hardening  the  butter  to  a  temperature  where 
you  can  handle  it. 

Salt  to  suit  your  trade.  Work  once  or  twice,  as  you  pre- 
fer; twice  working  is  preferable,  as  it  makes  the  nicer-ap- 
pearing butter.  Work  just  enough  to  remove  the  mottled 
or  streaked  appearance.  When  worked  twice  this  can  be 
told  at  the  time  by  the  appearance  of  the  butter.  When 
worked  but  once  it  cannot  be  told  until  the  butter  has  stood 
long  enough  for  the  salt  to  dissolve.  If  worked  but  once 
examine  the  butter  the  following  day,  until  you  make  your- 
self a  rule  of  thumb  to  work  by.  I  have  found  this  neces- 
sary. I  am  compelled  to  look  after  this  point  in  my 
creamery  work  when  the  butter  is  worked  but  once.  Use 
the  kind  of  butter-package  that  suits  your  trade,  but  always 
let  it  be  neat.  Never  send  a  mussy-looking  package  to 
market.     You  cannot  afford  to  do  it. 

0\   THE  USE  OF   PURE   CULTURES    IN  BUTTER- 
AND  CHEESE-MAKING. 

The  ripening  of  cream  is  brought  about  through  the  action 
of  minute  plants,  so-called  bacteria.  These  are  practically 
omnipresent  where  man  lives,  and  get  into  the  milk  during 
the  milking  and  the  handling  of  the  milk  and  cream  in  the 
dairy.  They  multiply  enormously  in  the  cream  during  the 
ripening  process,  owing  to  the  very  favorable  conditions  of 
life  which  they  find  there.  Some  forms  of  bacteria  are  de- 
sirable and  even  essential  in  the  manufacture  of  sour-cream 
butter;  these  feed  largely  on  the  milk-sugar  of  the  cream, 
and  decompose  this  component  into  lactic  acid,  which  is  the 
characteristic  acid  of  sour  cream  (as  well  as  of  sour  milk). 
Along  with  this  formation  of  lactic  acid  in  the  cream  other 
complicated,  and  yet  but  little  understood,  decomposition 
processes  take  place,  the  results  of  which  are  felt  in  the  fine 
aromatic  flavor  of  the  butter  produced.  Other  forms  of 
bacteria  cause  obnoxious  fermentations  in  the  cream,  and 
produce  a  butter  of  "off"  flavor,  in  aggravated  cases 
diseased  butter,  making  the  product  unfit  to  eat,  or  at  least 


264  DAIRYING. 

unsalable  as  a  first-class  article.  The  process  of  sour- 
cream  butter-making  is  therefore,  at  the  bottom,  a  question 
of  keeping  the  fermentations  during  the  ripening  of  the 
cream  in  the  right  track,  of  controlling  the  same  so  as  to 
exclude  all  but  lactic-acid-producing  bacteria.  The  old 
original  way  of  reaching  this  end  was  to  allow  the  cream 
to  sour  spontaneously,  trusting  to  luck  to  obtain  the  desired 
fermentation  of  the  cream  by  leaving  it  standing  in  a  warm 
f  room  for  a  couple  of  days.  Later  on,  a  buttermilk  starter 
;  from  a  preceding  churning  or  a  skim-milk  starter  was  added 
for  the  purpose  of  ripening  the  cream  ;  by  this  means 
the  lactic-acid  bacteria  contained  in  the  starter  were  intro- 
duced in  such  large  numbers  that  they  generally  were  able  to 
crowd  out  other  kinds  of  bacteria  that  might  be  found  in  the 
cream,  and  which,  if  left  alone,  would  produce  undesirable 
fermentations  in  the  cream  and  bad  flavor  in  the  butter. 
The  next  step  in  advance  was  the  introduction  of  pure 
cultures  of  lactic-acid  bacteria;  these  consist  of  one  or  a 
few  forms  of  bacteria,  and  when  introduced  in  milk  or 
cream  will  be  apt  to  overpower  all  other  forms  of  bacteria 
therein,  and  thus  produce  the  pure  mild  flavor  of  sour- 
cream  butter  desired. 

The  honor  of  having  first  introduced  pure  cultures  in 
butter-making  belongs  to  Dr.  V.  Storch,  the  chemist  of 
the  Danish  state  experiment  station  in  Copenhagen;  the 
bulletin  describing  Dr.  Storch's  investigations  of  this 
subject,  "On  the  Ripening  of  Cream,"  was  publislied  in 
iSgo.  Other  bacteriologists  in  Europe  and  in  this  country 
have  worked  along  this  same  line,  and  as  a  result  we  find 
that  pure  cultures  are  at  the  present  time  used  almost 
universally  in  the  manufacture  of  sour-cream  butter  in 
the  creameries  and  dairies  of  northern  Europe,  and  also 
in  this  country  their  use  has  becom^e  general  and  is  spread- 
ing. The  expected  result  of  adding  a  pure  culture-starter, 
viz.,  that  of  excluding  all  undesirable  fermentations  in 
the  ripening  of  the  cream,  will  not,  however,  follow  with 
any  certainty  unless  the  seeding  with  the  pure  culture 
is  preceded  by  pasteurization  or  sterilization  of  the  cream, 
that  is,  at  least  a  partial  destruction  of  the  bacteria  already 
found   therein.      In   Europe,  notably  in   Denmark  and  the 


BUTTER.  265 

other  Scandinavian  countries,  pasteurization  of  the  milk 
(or  of  the  cream)  is  practised  regularly  in  all  the  best 
creameries,  in  the  former  country  at  present  in  perhaps  go 
per  cent  of  the  creameries  in  operation.  In  this  country 
the  firms  manufacturing  and  selling  pure  cultures  have 
unfortunately  not  insisted  on  this  point,  and  where  pure 
culture-starters  are  used  with  us  it  is  nearly  always  with- 
out previous  pasteurization.  One  reason  why  pasteuriza- 
tion has  not  been  adopted  in  the  manufacture  of  butter  in 
this  country  is  that  the  market  demands  a  higher  flavored, 
■ '  stronger  "  butter  than  is  wanted  by  the  European  market, 
and  the  pure  cultures  on  the  market,  when  used  with 
pasteurized  cream,  do  not  produce  such  a  butter.  The 
expense  of  pasteurization  of  the  cream  and  the  absence  of 
proper  apparatus,  or  non-introduction  of  such  as  have 
proved  successful  in  European  practice,  furthermore  tend 
to  explain  why  our  butter-makers  do  not  generally  pasteur- 
ize the  cream  in  using  pure  culture-starters. 

The  three  pure  cultures  now  on  the  market  in  this 
country  are  Chr.  Hansen's  Lactic  Ferment  (Chr.  Hansen's 
Laboratory,  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.),  Conn's  culture  (B.  41, 
Conn  Butter  Improvement  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.),  and  the 
Boston  Butter  Culture  (Boston  Butter  Culture  Co.,  Boston, 
Mass.).  The  first  one  is  of  Danish  origin,  and  is  one  of  the 
standard  pure  cultures  used  in  the  Scandinavian  countries  ; 
the  second  was  described  by  its  originator  in  the  author's 
Dairy  Calendar  for  1896.  These  cultures  are  placed  on  the 
market  in  dry  form  as  a  powder,  or  as  pellets.  Directions 
for  using  the  cultures  accompany  each  package  sold.  In 
general,  the  method  to  be  followed  is  to  seed  the  culture  in 
a  quantity  of  sterilized  skim-milk  or  cream;  this  is  kept  for 
one  to  two  days  at  a  temperature  below  90°  (B.  41  70°, 
Lactic  Ferment  86°);  the  starter  is  then  mixed  with  the 
cream  to  be  ripened,  generally  adding  about  2  per  cent.  The 
cream  will  be  ready  for  churning  the  next  day.  A  portion 
of  the  starter  prepared  is  used  for  the  seeding  of  a  new  lot 
of  sterilized  skim-milk,  which  will  make  the  starter  for  the 
following  day,  and  the  same  process  is"  continued  until 
deterioration  of  the  starter  sets  in,  as  shown  by  lack  of 
flavor  in  the  ripened  cream  and  in  the  butter;  a  fresh  batch 
i§  then  prepared  from  a  new  package  of  ferment-     I^  propei 


266  DAIRYING. 

care  in  sterilizing  the  skim-milk  and  in  handling  the  starter 
is  taken,  the  pure  culture  may  be  propagated  in  this  manner 
for  months.  With  lack  of  cleanliness  and  care  it  must  be 
renewed  every  other  week  or  oftener. 

While  the  use  of  pure  cultures  has  not  as  yet  become 
general  in  American  creameries,  the  agitation  caused  by 
their  introduction  and  the  discussions  in  dairy  papers  and 
dairy  meetings  which  they  have  brought  about  have  doubt- 
less been  of  great  benefit  to  our  dairy  industry  in  empha- 
sizing in  the  minds  of  butter-makers  the  necessity  of 
thorough  cleanliness  in  the  creamery  and  the  importance 
of  the  proper  conduct  of  the  ripening  process  for  the 
manufacture  of  high-grade  butter.  They  have  enabled  us 
to  make  butter  of  uniform  fine  flavor  and  of  greater  keep- 
ing quality  than  was  previously  possible. 

Where  abnormal  fermentations  appear,  and  the  butter 
produced  is  diseased  or  "off  flavor,"  the  evil  may  be 
remedied  by  the  use  of  pure  cultures.  In  case  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  export  trade  of  American  butter  of  high 
quality,  the  pure  cultures  used  in  connection  with  previous 
pasteurization  of  the  milk  or  cream  will  prove  of  great 
benefit,  insuring  uniform  goods  and  perfect  keeping  quality 
in  the  product. 

The  use  of  pure  culture-starters  in  the  manufacture  of 
Cheddar  cheese  is  of  recent  date,  and  but  limited  experience 
has  so  far  been  gained  in  this  line.  According  to  the 
testimony  of  some  of  our  leading  cheese-makers,  and  of 
recent  experiments  conducted  at  Wisconsin  experiment 
station,  their  use  for  this  purpose  is  very  beneficial,  cheese 
of  improved,  clean  flavor  and  high  keeping  qualities  being 
produced.  Pure  cultures  may  therefore  be  safely  recom- 
m.ended  for  this  purpose.  The  general  method  of  applica- 
tion is  similar  to  that  followed  in  the  manufacture  of  pure 
culture  butter.  The  starter  is  propagated  in  sterilized 
milk  and  kept  at  90°  F.  for  one  day,  when  it  will  be  slightly 
lobbered,  having  an  acidity  of  about  .8  per  cent.  Prof. 
Decker,  late  of  the  Wisconsin  Dairy  School,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing hints  on  the  use  of  the  starter  by  the  cheese-maker  : 

"The  starter  is  introduced  into  the  milk  by  rubbing  it 


BUTTER.  367 

through  a  fine  hair  sieve  so  as  to  break  up  curd  particles. 
If  too  large  quantities  of  starter  is  used,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  produce  a  sour  cheese.  The  best  results  are  obtained 
when  a  2  per  cent  starter,  of  the  acidity  given,  is  added. 

"  In  propagating  the  starter  from  day  to  day  care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  it  free  from  contamination.  It  should  always 
be  prepared  in  a  covered  vessel  that  has  previously  been 
sterilized,  and  the  milk  used  should  first  be  pasteurized 
(or  sterilized)  and  chilled  before  adding  the  'seed.'  Some 
of  the  original  starter  should  be  taken  for  '  seed,'  not  the 
whole  milk  after  the  starter  has  been  added. 

"  The  starter  cannot  be  used  for  cheese-making  if  the  milk 
is  overripe,  which  is  the  case  when  the  rennet  test  is  65 
seconds  or  under  (see  p.  282).  In  sweet  milk,  testing  by 
the  rennet  test  120  seconds,  the  addition  of  a  2  per  cent 
starter  will  increase  the  acidity,  so  that  the  rennet  test  will 
act  in  70  seconds. 

"  With  sweet  milk  the  use  of  a  pure  lactic  starter  will 
result  in  the  saving  of  3-5  hours  in  time.  With  tainted 
milk  in  which  the  acid  develops  imperfectly  the  addition 
of  the  starter  aids  in  producing  the  acidity  required  for  the 
manufacture  of  Cheddar  cheese." 

BOYD'S   PROCESS   OF    CREAM    RIPENING. 

By  John  Boyd,  Chicago,  111. 

It  is  an  accepted  fact  that  the  fine  aromatic  flavor  and 
also  the  keeping  properties  of  butter  depend  largely  upon 
the  treatment  of  the  cream  from  the  time  it  is  separated 
from  the  milk  until  it  is  ready  for  the  churn,  that  is,  in 
the  best  possible  condition  to  yield  the  maximum  quantity 
and  the  best  quality  as  to  flavor,  texture,  solidity,  etc., 
free  from  casein  and  other  undesirable  substances.  This 
perfect  condition  of  cream  is  understood  by  the  term 
"  ripened  cream,"  and  when  this  condition  can  be  pro- 
duced by  the  butter-maker  with  uniformity,  regardless  of 
the  seasons  of  the  year  or  extremes  of  climate,  the  process 
may  be  reckoned  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible,  and  not 
until  then.     It  is  most  desirable  that  the  process  be  as  sim- 


268  DAIRTIN^G. 

pie  as  possible,  in  fact  within  the  reach  of  every  creamery 
and  dairyman  in  the  country,  and  all  the  means  required  to 
attain  these  results  can  and  should  be  a  part  of  every  dairy 
and  creamery,  large  or  small. 

Boyd's  process  or  system  of  ripening  cream  or  milk  is 
the  result  of  years  of  practical  work  in  a  private  dairy  of 
about  40  Jersey  cows.  After  it  had  been  thoroughly  tested 
and  used,  during  all  the  seasons  of  the  year,  it  was  pat- 
ented in  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  Great  Britain, 
and  given  to  the  public  in  the  year  1S89,  a  very  consider- 
able time  in  advance  of  any  of  the  artificial  methods  of 
ripening,  now  being  advocated  under  the  representations 
of  "  pure  cultures  of  bacteria." 

When  first  introduced  it  was  met  by  a  sea  of  opposition 
from  the  experts,  who  would  see  nothing  good  in  it,  but 
gradually  it  has  been  making  its  way  in  a  quiet  manner 
into  popularity  until  at  present  it  is  being  successfully 
practised  in  every  state  in  the  Union,  and  is  gaining  favor 
every  day  with  the  most  practical  butter-makers. 

The  apparatus  necessary  to  practise  the  process  supplies 
all  the  conditions  required  to  produce  a  uniform  result  every 
day  in  the  year,  the  temperature  of  the  lactive  ferment 
and  also  of  the  cream  being  entirely  under  the  control  of 
the  operator  during  the  entire  process. 

The  directions  for  using  the  process,  which  go  with  every 
purchase  of  the  apparatus,  are  as  follows: 

To  7nake  the  Best  Fervieitt. — Take  milk  from  fresh-milk- 
ing cows  (that  from  pregnant  cows  will  not  answer);  sub- 
merge the  milk  warm  from  the  cows  in  Cooley  cans  in  ice 
water.  Skim  at  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours,  as  most  con- 
venient, and  use  this  skimmed  milk  for  making  the  fer- 
ment; or  select  milk  as  above,  run  it  through  a  separator, 
and  save  the  skimmed  milk  for  making  the  ferment. 

The  skimmed  milk  so  selected  is  then  brought  to  a  tem- 
perature of  90°,  in  a  water  balh,  being  constantly  stirred 
during  the  operation  of  heating.  As  soon  as  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  milk  reaches  90°,  place  it  in  the  fermenting-can 
and  close  the  cover  tightly,  having  first  rinsed  out  the  can 
\vith  warm  water.     Allow  the  can  to   remain   closed   for 


BUTTEtt.  260 

twenty  or  twenty-four  hours,  when  the  ferment  will  be 
found  thick  and  in  the  proper  condition  for  mixing  with 
the  cream  or  milk  to  be  ripened. 

How  to  use  the  Ferment. — First  bring  the  cream  or  milk 
in  the  vat  to  a  temperature  of  66°  to  70°  Fahrenheit,  when 
the  ferment  is  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  cream  or 
milk  in  the  proportion  of  2  per  cent  of  the  ferment  to  the 
amount  of  cream  or  milk  to  be  ripened.  Remove  one  or 
two  inches  of  the  top  of  the  ferment,  which  is  not  desirable 
to  use,  and  strain  the  rest  through  a  fine  strainer  or  hair 
sieve  into  the  milk  or  cream.  The  finer  the  ferment  is 
broken  up  the  more  effective  its  operation  will  be.  After 
the  cream  or  milk  and  ferment  are  well  stirred  and  mixed 
at  the  above  temperature,  the  vat  must  be  closed  and  al- 
lowed to  remain  undisturbed  until  the  cream  is  ripened, 
requiring  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  hours  for  the  opera- 
tion; the  cream  when  ripe  will  be  found  thick,  mildly  acid, 
and  in  the  proper  chemical  condition,  requiring  only  to  be 
cooled  to  the  proper  temperature  for  churning. 

Churning. — The  best  temperature  for  churning  depends 
so  much  upon  circumstances  that  the  range  is  very  wide, 
from  55°  to  68°  Fahrenheit.  The  richer  the  cream  in  but- 
ter-fat the  colder  the  temperature  should  be,  and  the  more 
milk  the  cream  contains  the  higher  the  churning  tempera- 
ture should  be.  After  the  cream  or  milk  and  ferment  are 
mixed,  no  more  stirring  is  admissible,  as  any  agitation  of 
the  cream  afterwards  retards  the  ripening  process. 

Butter  by  Shallow-pan  Cr earning. — Raise  the  cream  in  a 
temperature  of  about  60°  F. ;  avoid  as  much  as  possible 
skimming  milk  in  with  the  cream;  ripen  at  about  65°  F. ; 
churn  at  60°  to  62°.  Free  the  granules  of  butter  from  the 
buttermilk  by  washing  in  water,  temperature  about  55°. 
Salt,  I  oz.  to  I  lb.  of  butter. 

Butter  by  Deep  Cold  Setting  and  Cooley  System. — Raise  the 
cream  in  ice-water;  milk  may  be  skimmed  in  with  the 
cream  or  not  as  desired;  with  the  Cooley  cream  a  very 
considerable  portion  of  milk  added  to  the  cream  will  pro- 
duce no  bad  effects.  Ripen  at  a  temperature  of  68°  by 
adding  lactive  ferment;  churn  at  temperature  of  58°  to  65°: 


270  DAIRYING. 

wash  the  granules  in  water,  temperature  50""  to  55°,  and 
salt  as  above. 

Butter fro?n  Separator  Cream. — Cool  the  cream  from  sep- 
arator to  66'  to  68°,  add  lactive  ferment,  and  churn  at  55"^  to 
SS'',  according  to  the  percentage  of  butter-fat  in  the  cream. 
The  cream  should  be  cooled  after  ripening  so  that  the 
temperature  of  the  cream  will  register  not  over  55°.  This 
cooling  requires  time  and  patience,  but  will  be  rewarded 
with  solid  granules.  Wash  in  water  at  50"  to  52°.  Salt, 
I  oz.  to  I  lb.  of  butter. 

Good  butter  should  not  contain  more  than  16%  of  water 
(and  may  contain  as  little  as  8^)  when  properly  worked. 
It  is  sufficiently  worked  when  it  presents  a  delicate  elastic- 
ity to  the  touch,  and  when  broken  should  show  a  perfect 
uniformity  of  grain  and  color. 

THE   ALKALINE   TABLET    TEST    OF    ACIDITY    IN 
MILK   OH   CREAM.* 

By  Prof.  E.  H.  Farrington,  of  Wisconsin  Dairy  School. 

Since  this  test  was  first  described  by  the  author,  a 
number  of  changes  have  been  made  in  the  way  of 
using  it. 

Reliable  results  are  now  obtained  with  less  and  simpler 
apparatus  than  when  the  test  was  originally  published. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  used  for  two  purposes. 

First. — For  testing  the  acidity  of  milk.  To  detect  those 
lots  which  are  apparently  sweet,  but  too  nearly  sour  for 
pasteurizing,  for  retailing,  or  for  making  the  best  butter 
or  cheese. 

Second. — For  testing  the  acidity  of  each  lot  of  cream  dur- 
ing its  ripening,  to  trace  the  progress  of  its  souring,  and  to 
show  whether  the  fermentations  should  be  hastened  or 
checked  in  order  to  have  the  cream  in  a  certain  acid  condi- 
tion at  a  given  time  and  ready  for  churning. 

In  addition  to  the  tablets,  the  only  apparatus  necessary 
for  testing  the  acidity  of  either  milk  or  cream  is  a  common 
white  teacup,  a  4,  6  or  8  oz.  bottle,  and  a  No.  10  brass  car- 
tridge-shell  or   similar   measure.     The  testing  solution   is 

*  For  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  the  alkaline  tablet  test,  see  Farring' 
ton-lVoll,  "  Testing  Milk  and  its  Products,"  Sixth  Ed.,  pp.  109-iao. 


BUTTER.  2^1 

prepared  by  dissolving  one  tablet  in  one  ounce  of  water. 
This  is  the  standard.  Four  ounces  of  the  tablet  solution  are 
made  by  filling  a  four-ounce  bottle  with  water  and  adding 
to  it  four  tablets.  The  No.  lO  shell  is  filled  with  the  milk 
or  cream  to  be  tested.  This  measured  quantity  is  poured 
into  a  white  cup.  The  same  measure  is  then  filled  with 
the  tablet  solution  and  this  is  poured  into  the  cup.  The 
two  liquids  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  the  color  of  the  mix- 
ture is  noted.  If  there  is  no  change  of  color,  another 
measure  of  tablet  solution  is  added.  This  is  continued 
until  the  sample  which  is  being  tested  becomes  of  a  pink 
color.  As  soon  as  the  pink  color  is  obtained  no  more  tablet 
solution  is  added.  The  per  cent  of  acid  in  the  sample 
tested  is  found  from  the  number  of  measures  of  tablet 
solution  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  one  measure  of  the 
sample  in  order  to  produce  the  pink  color.  Each  measure 
of  tablet  solution  represents  one  tenth  of  one  per  cent 
acid. 

A  more  exact  testing  of  acidity  can  be  made  by  using  a 
17.6-cc.  pipette  for  measuring  the  milk  or  cream  to  be 
tested  and  a  loo-cc,  graduated  cylinder  for  the  tablet  solu- 
tion. 

Five  tablets  are  dissolved  in  97  cc.  of  water  in  the 
cylinder,  and  this  solution  is  gradually  poured  into  the 
17.6  cc.  of  milk  or  cream  in  a  white  cup.  When  sufficient 
tablet  solution  has  been  added  to  produce  the  pink  color  in 
the  sample  tested,  the  operator  observes  on  the  scale  of 
the  graduated  cylinder  the  number  of  cc.  tablet  solution 
used.  Each  cc.  of  this  tablet  solution  is  equal  to  0.0090  gr. 
lactic  acid,  and  when  17.6  cc.  of  a  sample  is  tested,  each  cc. 
of  the  tablet  solution  is  equal  to  .01  per  cent  acid  in  the 
sample. 

Milk  does  not  smell  or  taste  sour  until  it  contains 
about  three-tenths  of  one  per  cent  acid.  It  has  been 
found,  however,  that  milk  containing  over  two  tenths  per 
cent  acid  cannot  be  safely  pasteurized,  because  such  milk 
sours  very  soon.  These  tablets  supply  a  quick  means  of 
selecting  the  sweetest  of  different  lots  of  sweet  milk,  by 
showing  which  contain  less  than  two  tenths  of  one  per 
cent  acid. 


272  DAIRYING. 

Cream  is  often  ripened  so  far  that  the  quality  of  the  but- 
ter is  injured.  The  usual  method  of  the  butter-maker  for 
testing  the  sourness  of  the  cream  is  by  the  sense  of  smell 
and  taste.  A  tablet  test  shows  exactly  what  per  cent  of 
acid  each  lot  of  cream  contains,  so  that  the  butter-maker 
is  better  able  to  manufacture  a  uniform  grade  of  butter  by 
ripening  his  cream  to  the  same  point  before  it  is  churned. 
Sweet  cream  contains  about  0.15^  acid.  Cream  has  reached 
the  proper  point  for  churning  when  it  contains  about  six- 
tenths  per  cent  acid.  As  the  souring  of  cream  is  largely 
influenced  by  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  held,  the  but- 
ter-maker is  able  to  know  from  an  acid  test  of  the  cream 
whether  it  should  be  warmed  or  cooled  in  order  to  have  it 
ready  for  churning  at  a  given  time  and  just  sour  enough 
for  making  butter  of  good  flavor  (see  page  275-^). 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    THE    USE     OF    MANNS'    TEST 

FOR  ASCERTAINING  THE   ACIDITY  OF 

CREAM. 

1.  Stir  the  cream  thoroughly;  insert  small  end  of  pipette 
in  cream  and  draw  until  nearly  full;  then  put  the  finger  over 
upper  end  of  pipette  and  allow  cream  to  escape  slowly  (by 
admitting  air)  until  mark  on  neck  of  pipette  is  reached. 
Transfer  to  a  tumbler,  rinse  the  pipette  three  times  with 
lukewarm  water,  adding  the  rinsing  water  to  the  cream  in 
the  tumbler.  Now  add  to  contents  of  the  tumbler  three 
drops  of  the  solution  marked  "  Indicator"  (phenolphtalein). 

2.  Fill  the  burette  up  to  the  o  mark  with  the  solution 
marked  "  Neutralizer"  (alkali  solution). 

3.  While  constantly  stirring  the  cream  with  the  glass  rod, 
allow  the  liquid  to  flow  from  the  burette  into  the  tumbler 
until  the  entire  contents  of  the  tumbler  shows  a  pink  tinge. 
Stop  adding  the  solution  from  the  burette  the  moment  the 
color  is  permanent. 

4.  Read  the  level  of  the  liquid  remaining  in  the  burette. 
The  reading  shows  the  amount  of  acid  present. 

The  experience  of  those  using  the  test  indicates  tha'. 
where  the  acidity  of  the  cream  is  right,  to  secure  the  bes'> 
results  in  yield  and  flavor  of  butter,  from  38  to  42  cc.  of  the 
jieutralizer   will   be  required  for  the  test.     It  is  a  simple 


BUTTER. 


273 


matter  for  each  butter  maker  to  learn  by  experiment  the 
exact  degree  of  acidity  and  churning  temperature  suited  to 
the  best  results,  and  with  these  as  standards  reduce  the 
process  of  butter-making  to  a  certainty.  By  testing  his 
cream  in  the  afternoon  the  butter-maker  will  be  able  to  set 
it  to  ripen  at  such  a  temperature  that  it  will  show  the  proper 
acidity  for  churning  next  morning. 

In  testing  the  milk  for  cheese-making  the  same  directions 
are  to  be  followed,  excepting  that  a  much  less  acid  condition 
is  required;  probably  15-20  cc.  will  give  the  best  results. 
The  whole  numbers  are  cubic  centimeters;  the  intermediate 
divisions  are  fractions  of  a  cubic  centimeter. 

Precautions inUsing the  Test. — The  solution  marked  "Neu- 
tralizer"  is  prepared  of  a  certain  strength.  It  is  essentia; 
that  this  strength  remain  constant.  Never  let  this  solution 
stand  without  a  stopper.     Keep  in  glass  or  stoneware. 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  BUTTER.     (Konig.) 


Aver- 
age. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Sweet 
Cream 
Butter. 

Sour 
Cream 
Butter. 

No.  of  analyses  included 

Water 

302 

13-59 
84-39 

If 

.66 

415 

69.96 

.19 

•45 
.02 

4.78 
1.16 
15.08 

10 
12.93 

84^53 
.61 
.68 

1.25 

11 

13.08 

84.26 

.81 

Fat 

Casein 

Milk  susrar.   .            .. 

.66 

Lactic  acid 

Ash 

1. 19 

100.00 

AVERAGE    CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION  OF    SWEET 
CREAM-    AND    SOUR    CREAM-BUTTER. 

(Fleischmann.) 


Made  from  Sweet 
Cream,  not  Salted. 

Made  from  Sour 
Cream,  Salted. 

Not 
washed. 

Washed. 

Not 
washed. 

Wasned. 

Water 

Per  ct. 

15.00 

83.47 

.60 

.80 

•13 

Per  ct. 

15.00 

83-73 

•55 

.60 

.12 

Per  ct. 
12  00 

84.75 

•50 

■55 

2.20 

Per  ct. 

12.50 

84.62 

.48 

.40 

2.00 

Fat 

Casein  and  albumen 

Other  organic  substances . 

Ash,  or  ash  and  salt 

?74  DAIRYING. 

AXATiYS^^S    OF    PREMIUM   BUTTERS,    FAT-STOCK 
SHOW,    CHICAGO,   18S9.— IN   PER   CENT.     (Mokkow.) 


Description  of  Samples. 


Sweepstakes — Creamery,  gathered  cream 

"  "  whole  milk 

"  Dairy 

"  From  a  grade  cow 

First  prize — From  a  Jersey  cow   

"        "        From  a  Shorthorn  cow 

"         "        From  an  Ayrshire  cow  

"        "        From  a  Devon  cow 

"        "         From  a  Holstein  cow 

Average 


* 

«) 

rt 

•0 

3 

H 

fS 

u 

06 

9.99 

85.41 

1. 01 

94 

12.19 

82.66 

1.21 

o^ 

8.49 

86.53 

.86 

qS-S 

9.71 

85-96 

1.03 

qi 

8.99 

88.08 

-79 

91 

12.07 

84.79 

1-34 

q^ 

9-53 

80.53 

.81 

By 

10.78 

86.20 

.72 

92-5 
92-5 

10  56 

85-53 

.88 

10.23 

85-74 

.96 

3-58 

3-93 
4.12 

3-29 
2.13 
1.79 


ANALYSES    OP   FOREIGN    SAMPLES  OF  BUTTER. 

(In  Per  Cent.) 


Country. 


No.  of 
Anal- 
yses. 


Water. 


Fat. 


Curd. 


Ash 
(Salt). 


A.   Salted  Butter. 


Denmark 

Sweden 

Finland 

Netherlands. . 
France 
Great  Britain. 

Germany 

Italy 

Australia 

Canada 

United  States. 


France 

Germany 

Great  Britain. 

Austria 

Italy  

Switzerland.. 
Australia 


55 

12.86 

83.78 

1. 21 

139 

14.13 

82.57 

.98 

2 

13-05 

84.11 

1.58 

4 

12.97 

84-13 

1.39 

235 

13.32 

84.48 

1.43 

322 

12.09 

84.66 

1.14 

162 

13.38 

83.70 

1.25 

6 

11.52 

85.56 

1.07 

59 

11.16 

85.32 

.96 

207 

8.97 

84.29 

1.44 

473 

11.44 

84.64 

1.02 

B.   Unsalted  Butter. 


Average  for  salted  butter 

"  "     unsalted\>\xX.\.(^x 


58 

13.73 

85.80 

1-39 

86 

12.03 

85-70 

3.15 

24 

13.43 

85.64 

.80 

5 

14-15 

84.14 

1-54 

53 

13-67 

85.08 

I. II 

14 

13.76 

84.65 

1-55 

2 

10.63 

87.71 

1.38 

1676 

".95 

84.27 

1.26 

242 

13.07 

85-24 

1-57 

2-15 

2.32 
1.26 

i-5« 
.77 
2. II 
1.67 
1.86 
2.56 
5-17 
2.90 


.08 
.12 
•13 
.17 
•15 
.04 


2.58 


*  The  standard  of  the  scale  of  points  in  a  total  of  100  was  :  Flavor,  45  : 
grain,  30;  color,  15  ;  salting,  10. 


+  Chiefly  salt. 


BUTTER. 


FORMULA   FOR  CALCULiATIXG  THE  YIELD  OF 
BUTTER. 

In  ordinary  dairj'  or  creamery  practice,  where  moderu 
methods  of  creaming  and  churning  are  applied,  the  yield 
of  butter  will  exceed  that  of  fat  in  the  milk  by  12  to  15  per 
cent,  or  i  pound  of  fat  in  the  milk  will  produce  about  1.15 
pounds  butter,  i.e.,  yield  of  butter  from  100  lbs.  of  milk  = 
1. 15/,  y  being  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk. 

Fleischmann^ s  formula: 

Yield  of  butter  =  1.16/—  .25 

Conversion  Factor  for  Calculating  Yield  of  Butter  from  the 
Amount  of  Butter-fat. — The  following  resolution  was  passed 
by  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and 
Experiment  Stations  at  the  annual  convention  of  the  asso- 
ciation, July,  1895: 

"  Resolved,  That  this  association  recommends  to  the 
several  stations  that  the  results  of  tests  of  dairy  cows  or 
herds  be  expressed  in  terms  of  butter-fat,  and  that  when 
desirable  to  express  these  records  in  terms  of  approximate 
equivalent  in  butter  such  equivalent  be  computed  by  multi- 
plying the  amount  of  butter-fat  by  i^."  (Report  of  Curtiss, 
Armsby,  and  Cooke.) 

The  factor  i|  is  based  upon  the  results  of  the  Columbian 
dairy  test,  in  which  it  was  found  that  on  the  average  117. 3 
lbs.  of  butter  were  made  from  each  100  lbs.  of  butter-fat  in 
the  whole  milk,  and  96.67  lbs.  of  butter-fat  of  the  milk  was 
recovered  in  the  butter. 

AMOUNT  OF  BUTTER  OBTAINED  FROM  100 
KILOGRAMS  (220  LBS.)  OF  CREAM  OF  DIF- 
FERENT RICHNESS.      (Maktiny.) 


Per  Ct.  Fat 

Yield  of 

Per  Ct.  Fat 

Yield  of 

Per  Ct.  Fat 

Yield  of 

in  Cream. 

Butter. 

in  Cream. 

Butter. 

in  Cream. 

Butter. 

lbs. 

1 

lbs. 

, 

lbs. 

0 

34-3 

1          22 

50.6 

29 

66.7 

16 

36.8 

23 

52.9 

30 

69 

0 

17 

30. 1 

24 

C5.2 

31 

7^ 

3 

18 

41.4 

2=; 

57-5 

1          32 

73 

6 

19 

4^-7 

26 

5g  8 

1             3:i 

7=; 

Q 

20 

46.0 

27 

(<2  .  I 

34 

7H 

2 

21 

,8.3 

28 

t.4.4 

1            35 

80  5 

275rt 


DAIRYING. 


YIELD  OF  BUTTER    CORRESPONDING    TO  YIELD 
OF  BUTTER-FAT  PER  DAY  AND  PER  AVEEK, 

ifi  Pounds. 


Butter. 


Fat.       Butter 


Fat. 


Butter. 


Fat. 


A.   Per  Day. 


o 

95           1 

II 

60 

OO                I 

17 

b5 

05        I 

23 

70 

10          I 

28 

7S 

15        I 

34 

80 

20          I 

40 

«5 

25       1 

46 

go 

30       1 

52 

1      I 

95 

35           1 

5« 

00 

40           I 

63 

2 

05 

45           I 

69 

2 

10 

50           I 

75 

2 

15 

55           I 

81 

2 

20 

1.87 

2.25 

:;^l 

2.30 
2.35 

2.04 

2.40 

2.10 

2.4s 

2.16 

2.50 

2.22 
2.28 

2-55 
2.60 

2-33 

2.65 

2-39 

2  70 

2-45 

2.51 

2  75 
2.80 

2-57 

2.85 

B.   Per  Week. 


5.00 

5.83 

7-50 

8.75 

10.00 

11.67 

12.50 

14.58 

5.10 

5-95 

7.60 

8.87 

10. TO 

11.78 

12.60 

14.70 

5.20 

6.07 

7.70 

8.98 

10.20 

11.90 

12.70 

14.82 

5-3° 

6.18 

7.80 

9. 10 

10.30 

12.02 

12.80 

14-93 

540 

6.30 

7.90 

9.22 

10    40 

12.13 

12.90 

15-05 

5-50 

6.42 

8.00 

9-33 

10.50 

12.25 

T3.00 

15-17 

5.60 

6.53 

8.10 

9-45 

10.60 

12.37 

13. 10 

15-28 

5-70 

6.65 

8.20 

9-57 

10.70 

12.48 

13.20 

15.40 

S-8o 

6.77 

8.30 

9.68 

10.80 

12.60 

13.30 

15-52 

5.90 

6.88 

8.40 

9.80 

10.90 

12.72 

13.40 

15-63 

6.00 

7.00 

8.50 

9.92 

TI.OO 

12.83 

13-50 

'5-75 

6,10 

7.12 

8.60 

10.03 

11.10 

12.05 

13.60 

15-87 

6.20 

723 

8.70 

10.15 

11.20 

13-07 

13-70 

15-98 

6.30 

7-35 

8.80 

10.27 

11.30 

13.18 

13.80 

16.10 

6.40 

7-47 

8.90 

10.38 

11.40 

13-30 

13.90 

16.22 

6.50 

7.58 

9.00 

10.50 

11.50 

13-42 

14.00 

16.33 

6.60 

7.70 

9.10 

10.62 

11.60 

13-53 

14.10 

16.45 

6.70 

7.82 

9.20 

10.73 

It.  70 

13  65 

14.20 

16.57 

6.80 

7-93 

9.30 

10.85 

11.80 

13-77 

14.30 

16.68 

6.90 

8.05 

9.40 

10.97 

11.90 

13-88 

14.40 

16.80 

7.00 

8.17 

9-50 

11.08 

12.00 

14.00 

14-50 

t6.02 

7.10 

8.28    ! 

9.60 

11.20 

13     10 

14. 12 

14.60 

17-03 

7.20 

840    ! 

9.70 

11.32 

12.20 

14.23 

14.70 

17-15 

7-30 

8.52    1 

9.80 

It  43 

12.30 

U.35 

14.80 

17.27 

7.40 

8.63     ! 

9.90 

"•55 

12.40 

14.47 

14.90 

17.38 

Fat. 

Butter. 

Fat. 

Butter. 

.01 

.Ol 

.06 

.07 

.02 

.02 

-07 

.08 

•03 

.04 

.08 

.09 

.04 

■05 

.og 

.  11 

.05 

.06 

1 

.10 

.12 

BUTTER. 


2756 


VALUE  OF 


lOOs -100 


FOR  SP.    GR.  OF  MILK    FROM 


1.019  TO  1.0399. 

(See  p.  233.) 


RELATION  OF  FAT  CONTENT  TO  ACIDITY  OF 
SKIM-MILK,  MILK,  AND  CREAM.     (A.  Vind.) 

(See  p.  272.) 


Skim 

Whole 

Crpam, 

milk 

Milk. 

Fat  contents 

0  per 

ct. 

5  per  ct. 

25perct. 

3operct. 

35  perct. 

40  perct. 

CO. 

% 

cc. 

% 

cc. 

7-5 

% 
.14 

cc. 
7 

% 
•13 

cc. 

6-5 

.  12 

cc. 
6 

% 

Equal  acidity  test 

10 

.18 

9-5 

•17 

.11 

*'          ' 

45 

81 

43 

77 

S4 

bi 

31-5 

•57 

29 

.52 

37 

49 

"          ' 

48 

86 

45-5 

82 

36 

65 

33-5 

.60 

31 

.56 

29 

52 

"          ' 

50 

QO 

48 

86 

37-5 

67 

35 

•63 

32-5 

-.sB 

30 

54 

"          ' 

52 

94 

49-5 

8q 

39 

70 

36.5 

.66 

34 

.61 

31 

56 

"          ' 

J 

54 

97 

51 

92 

40.  s 

73 

38 

.68 

35 

.63 

32.5 

58 

"          ' 

55 

99 

52 

94 

41 

74 

3«.5 

.69 

36 

.65 

33 

59 

"          I 

57 

1 

03 

54 

97 

43 

77 

40 

.72 

37 

.67 

34 

bi 

"          ' 

5Q 

I 

ob 

sb 

I 

01 

44 

79 

41. s 

•75 

38. S 

.69 

35^5 

64 

to 

1.08 

" 

1.03 

45 

.81 

42 

.76 

39 

.70 

3^ 

.65 

^76 


DAIRYING. 


YIELD  OF  BUTTER   FIIOM  MILK  OF  DIFFERENT 

RICHNESS.         (KiKCHNEK.) 

loo  lbs.  of  milk  will  yield  the  number  of  pounds  of  butter  given  in  the 
tab'e.     (Percentage  creaming,  i6  per  ct.;  fat  in  butter,  83  per  ct.) 


Per  cent,  of 
Fat  in  Milk. 

Per  cent,  of  Fat  in  Skim-milk. 

.20 

-30 

.40 

.50 

2-5 

2.697 

2.600 

2.503 

2.406 

3.6 

2.812 

3.716 

2.618 

2.522 

2.7 

2.928 

2.832 

2-734 

2.638 

2.8 

3  044 

2.948 

2.850 

2.754 

2.9 

3.160 

3-063 

2.966 

2.869 

3.0 

3.276 

3.178 

3.081 

2.984 

3-1 

3-392 

3-293 

3-297 

3.100 

3-2 

3-508 

3-409 

3-313 

3.216 

3-3 

3.624 

3-525 

3-429 

3-332 

3-4 

3-739 

3-641 

3-544 

3-447 

3-5 

3  854 

3-757 

3-659 

3.562 

3-6 

3.969 

3-873 

3-774 

3-677 

3-7 

4.084 

3-989 

5-890 

3-793 

3-8 

4.200 

4.105 

4.006 

3-909 

39 

4-316 

4.220 

4.122 

4.025 

4.0 

4.432 

4-335 

4-238 

4. 141 

4.1 

4-547 

4-450 

4-352 

4.257 

4.2 

4-663 

4-565 

4.468 

4-373 

4.3 

4-779 

4.681 

4.584 

4-489 

4-4 

4-895 

4-797 

4.700 

4.604 

4-5 

5. on 

4-913 

4.816 

4-719 

4.6 

5.127 

5.028 

4-932 

4-834 

4-7 

5-243 

5-144 

5-048 

4-949 

4.8 

5  -  359 

5.260 

5-^64 

5-065 

4-9 

5-474 

5-376 

5.280 

S.iSx 

S-o 

5  589 

5-492 

5-395 

5-297 

BUTTER. 


POUNDS  OF  MILK  REQUIRED  TO  3IAKE   ONE 
POUND  OF  BUTTER. 


Per  Cent 
Fat  in  Milk. 


2.8. 
3.0. 
3.2. 
3-4- 
3.6. 
3.8. 
4.0. 
4.2. 
4.4. 
4.6. 
4.8. 


Lbs.  of  Milk  per 
I  lb.  of  Butter. 


29.0 

27.2 

25.5 

24.2 
22.9 
21.7 
20.7 
19.8 
18.9 
I8.I 


Per  Cent 
Fat  in  Milk. 


5-0. 
5-2. 
5.4. 
5.6. 
5.8. 
6.0. 
6.2. 

6.4. 

6.6. 
6.8, 
7.0. 


Lbs.  of  Milk  pel 
I  lb.  of  Butler. 


17.4 

16.7 
16. 1 
15.5 
15.0 
14-5 
14.0 
13.6 
13-2 
12.8 
12.4 


y..bs.  of  Milk  per 
I  lb.  of  Butter. 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 


Per  Cent 
Fat  in  Milk. 
,  8.70 
■  7-90 
.  7-25 
.  6.69 
.    6.21 

.  5-8o 

•  5-44 
.  5.12 
.  4.83 

•  4.58 
.  4-35 
.  4.14 
-  3-95 

•  3-78 
.  3.62 
.  3.47 


Lbs.  of  Milk  per 
I  lb.  of  Butter. 


26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31- 
32. 
33- 
34- 
35 
36. 

37- 

38. 

39- 
40. 


Per  Cent 
Fat  in  Milk 

■  3-34 
.  3-22 
.  3.11 
.  3.00 
.  2.90 
,  2.81 
.  2.72 
.  2.64 
.  2.56 
.  2.48 
,  2.42 
.  2.35 
.  2.29 
.  2.23 
2.17 


The  two  preceding  tables  are  based  on  ordinary  creamery 
experience,  i  pound  of  fat  in  the  milk  producing  1.15 
pounds  of  biUter. 


27a 


DAIRYING. 


NUMBER  OF  POUNDS  OF   MIIiK   REQUIRED   FOR 
MAKING   ONE    POUND  OF    BUTTER.     (Kirchner.) 


Lbs,  Butter  per 
loo  lbs.  of  Milk. 

Lbs.  Milk  per  i 

Lbs.  Butter  per 
100  lbs.  of  Milk. 

Lbs.  Milk  per  i 

lb.  of  Butter. 

lb.  of  Butter. 

2.4 

41.67 

3-8 

26.32 

2-5 

40.00 

^.9 

25.64 

2.6 

38.46 

4.0 

25.00 

1:1 

37-04 

4.1 

24-39 

35  71 

4.2 

23.81 

2.9 

34-48 

4-3 

23.26 

3.0 

33-33 

4.4 

22.73 

3.1 

32.26 

4.5 

22.22 

3.2 

31-25 

4.6 

21.74 

3-3 

30.30 

"^•l 

21.28 

3-4 

29.41 

4.8 

20.83 

3-S 

28.57 

4.9 

20.41 

3-6 

27.68 

5.0 

20.00 

3-7 

27.03 

5-5 

18.18 

DISTRIBUTION   OF   MILK   INGREDIENTS    IN 
BUTTER    MAKING.      (Cooke.) 


c" 

Proportion 

•n 

^ 

S 

rt 

of  the  Total 

50 

V^ 

Milk  Fat 

<-" 

Xi 

.-c^ 

,c 

found  in  the 

H 

fe 

U 

< 

^ 

< 

Product. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1000  lbs.  of  whole  milk 

130.0 

40.0 

26.0 

7  0 

49.5 

7.5 

800  lbs.  of  skim-milk 

78.0 

2.4 

22.0 

6.0 

41.2 

6.4 

6 

200  lbs.  of  cream 

52.0 

37.6 

4.0 

1 .0 

8.3 

I.I 

94 

187  lbs.  of  buttermilk 

14.91 

.8 

3-77 

.94 

8.3 

I.I 

2 

43.3  lbs.  of  butter 

37.09 

36.8 

.23 

.06 

92 

SCORE   FOR   JUDGING   BUTTER. 

World's  Fair,  Chi 
1893. 

Flavor 45 

Grain 25 

Color 15 

Salting 10 

Packing 5 

100 


;ago, 


BUTTER. 


279 


This  score  has  been  adopted  in  judging  butter  exhibits 
at  various  State  fairs  and  dairymen's  conventions  during 
late  years;  in  some  cases  the  score  has  been  changed  to 
50  for  flavor  and  5  for  salting,  otherwise  as  above,  or  to 
flavor  40,  grain  30,  with  other  points  as  above. 

Minimum  number  of  points  entitling  exhibitors  to  a 
premium: 

Wisconsin  Dairymen's  Association,  93,  95,  and  94  points, 
for  dairy,  separator  creamery,  and  gathered-cream  butter, 
respectively. 

New  York  State  Fair,  75  points. 

ENGIilSH   SCALE   OF   POINTS  FOR  JUDGING 

BUTTER.        (MCCONNELL.) 

Perfection,  100. 
25  Flavor  :  nutty,  aromatic,  sweet. 
20  Moisture  :  as  free  from  beads  of  water  as  possible. 
10  Solidity :  firm,  not  melting  easily,  nor  softening. 
25  Texture  :    closeness  of   grain,  distinct  fracture  ;    not 

greasy. 
10  Color  :  natural,  even. 

10  Make  :  remaining  points,  cleanliness,   salting,  nicely 
put  up,  etc. 


SCORE  IN  JUDGING  PROFICIENCY  OF  BUTTER- 
3IAKERS. 

(Adopted  by  British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association.) 
Butter-making. 


Preparation  of  cream 4 

"  "  utensils 6 

Ventilation  of  churn 4 

Judgment  and  skill  in  churning. .   15 

Washing  butter  in  churn 10 

Use  of  strainer 4 

*'      "thermometer 7 

"     "butter-worker 7 


Salting 5 

Making  up 15 

Flavor  and  color 7 

Texture  and  freedom  from  moist- 
ure   7 

Cleaning  utensils 4 

Rapidity  and  cleanliness  of  work- 
ing     5 


280 


DAIRYING. 


ANALYSi:S    OF   AMERICAN    DAIRY    SALTS. 

(In  Per  Cent.*) 


Name  of  Brand. 


Acme 

Anchor 

Ashton 

Bradley 

Canfield&VVheeler. 
Diamond  Crystal... 

Empire 

Genesee   

Higgins 

Le  Roy 

Lone  Star   

Vacuum  Pan 

Warsaw 

Worcester 

Coleman 

Rice 

Windsor. 


•a 

. 

>. 

•u 

0 

,-u 

s 

o 

ci 

0 

CJ 

C3 

3 
CO 

0 

3 

s 

3 

3 

e 

3 

c 

o 

15 

0^ 

^ 

s 

98.39 

1.22 

.12 

.07 

97 

79 

1.48 

.28 

.08 

9» 

01 

1.42 

.20 

.16 

9« 

27 

.90 

.40 

.07 

98 

18 

I  .21 

.22 

.12 

99 

18 

•54 

.19 

.05 

^S 

5« 

.66 

•54 

.10 

98 

27 

T.II 

.24 

.07 

98 

19 

1.44 

.14 

.TO 

9« 

IS 

I-3I 

•  39 

.08 

9B 

24 

1.46 

.06 

.08 

98 

00 

i-'5 

.36 

•15 

98 

43 

.95 

.40 

.06 

98 

57 

.92 

•25 

.07 

98 

21 

1.48 

.10 

.04 

97 

57 

1.8.S 

.  12 

.09 

98 

43 

.90 

•  51 

.04 

•03 
.06 


.04 
•03 

.02 

.04 

.02 
.01 

.06 
•03 
•03 

.02 

.08 
.07 

.02 


0.0 


•944 
r.i2S 
.703 
.876 
1 .062 
.880 
•933 
•875+ 
.907 

1-094+ 

1.072 

1.075 

.962 

1. 149 

.865 

.828 


rt_3 
C.C/5 


24 
31 

39 
63 
26 
33 

31+ 
28 
25+ 
28 

30 
39 
29 


*  See  IVoll,  "  A  Study  of  Dairy  Salt,"  Bulletin  No.  74,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta. 
+  Butter-salt;  cheese-salt,  appar.  sp.  gr.  .671;  rate  of  solubilitj-  34  sec. 
X  Butter-salt;  cheese-salt,  appar.  sp.  gr.  .944;  rate  of  solubility  37  sec, 
§  Butter-salt;  cheese-salt,  appar.  sp.  gr.  .891;  rate  of  solubility  32  sec. 


CHEESE.  281 


V.  CHEESE. 

HOW  AMERICAN  CHEESE  IS  MADE. 

By  Prof.  John  W,  Decker,  of  Ohio  Dairy  School,  Author  of 

"Cheddar  Cheese  Making."' 

A.     Factory  or  Chorldar  (^hoese. 

As  soon  as  the  milk  is  received  at  the  factory  it  is  heated 
to  86"  F.  and  a  rennet  test  made.* 

If  the  milk  is  not  dpe  enough  it  is  held  till  the  proper 
acidity  is  reached.  If  the  milk  is  very  sweet  a  starter  of 
sour  milk  is  added  to  hasten  it.  The  milk  should  be  set  at 
such  a  ripeness  that  there  will  be  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
of  acid  (fine  strings)  on  the  hot-iron  in  two  hours  and  a  half 
from  the  time  rennet  is  added. 

If  the  cheese  is  to  be  colored  the  color  is  added  just  be- 
fore setting  the  milk.  When  it  is  thoroughly  stirred  in, 
we  can  add  the  rennet.  The  amount  of  rennet  to  be  used 
depends  on  the  kind  of  cheese  desired.  If  a  soft  fast-cur- 
ing cheese  is  wanted,  enough  rennet  is  used  to  coagulate 
the  milk  in  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  ;  if  a  slow-curing 
cheese,  enough  to  coagulate  in  thirty  to  forty-five  minutes. 
It  is  stirred  in  thoroughly  in  four  or  five  minutes  and  then 
the  dipper  is  run  lightly  over  the  top,  to  keep  the  cream 
down  till  the  milk  begins  to  thicken,  when  a  cloth  cover  is 
spread  over  the  vat  and  the  coagulation  allowed  to  continue 
till  the  curd  will  break  clean  over  the  fingers. 

*  The  Monrad  rennet  test  is  recommended.  It  consists  of  a  i6o  cc.  tin 
cylinder  for  measuring  the  milk,  a  5  cc.  pipette,  a  50  cc.  graduated  flask, 
and  a  half-pint  tin  basin.  The  rennet  is  measured  with  the  5  cc.  pipette 
and  delivered  into  the  50  cc.  flask,  the  rennet  adhering  to  the  pipette  being 
rinsed  into  the  flask  with  a  little  water.  The  flask  is  then  filled  with  water 
to  the  50  cc.  mark,  and  the  solution  mixed  by  shaking.  The  milk,  the 
temperature  of  which  should  be  86°  F.,  is  measured  in  the  tin  cylinder, 
emptied  into  the  half-pint  basin,  and  5  cc.  of  the  dilute  extract  is  measured 
into  the  160  cc.  of  milk,  and  the  number  of  seconds  required  to  curdle  it 
noted.  If  a  few  specks  of  charcoal  are  scattered  on  the  milk  and  the  milk 
started  into  motion  around  the  dish  with  a  thermometer,  the  instant  of 
curdling  can  be  noted  by  the  stopping  of  the  specks.  They  will  stop  so 
suddenly  as  to  seem  to  start  back  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  Marshall 
rennet  test  is  a  very  convenient  device  for  ascertaining  the  exact  moment 
of  coagulation. 


282  DAIRYING. 

The  curd  is  then  cut,  using  the  horizontal  knife  first  and 
cutting  lengthwise  of  the  vat.  The  cutting  is  finished  from 
this  point  with  the  perpendicular  knife,  the  curd  being 
thus  cut  into  cubes  one  half  inch  in  diameter. 

Without  waiting  for  the  curd  to  settle,  we  begin  stirring 
very  carefully  with  a  wire  basket,  and  rub  the  curd  off  from 
the  sides  of  the  vat  with  the  hand.  As  soon  as  this  is  done 
we  turn  on  the  heat  carefully  and  raise  the  temperature 
slowly  to  98°  F. ;  when  the  curd  is  firm  enough  a  wooden 
rake  is  used  to  stir  it.  The  temperature  is  raised  at  the 
rate  of  one  degree  in  four  or  five  minutes. 

As  soon  as  the  temperature  of  98°  F.  is  reached  we  begin 
trying  the  curd  on  the  hot-iron  for  acid.  We  must  have  the 
curd  firm  enough  when  the  whey  is  drawn,  so  that  a  double 
handful  pressed  together  will  fall  apart  readily.  This  is 
the  test  for  a  proper  cooking.  When  fine  threads  one 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  length  show  on  the  hot  iron  the  whey 
is  ready  to  draw.  This  should  be  two  and  a  half  hours 
from  the  time  the  milk  was  set.  The  whey  is  drawn  off  by 
means  of  a  whey  gate  and  a  whey  strainer,  and  the  curd 
dipped  into  a  curd-sink  or  on  racks  placed  in  the  vat. 
There  should  be  racks  in  the  curd-sink  over  which  a  linen 
strainer-cloth  is  thrown.  The  curd  is  dipped  onto  this 
cloth  and  the  whey  drains  through.  The  curd  should  be 
stirred,  to  facilitate  the  escape  of  the  whey,  and  is  then  left 
to  mat  together.  In  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  it  can  be  cut 
into  blocks  eight  or  ten  inches  square,  and  turned  over. 
After  turning  several  times  these  blocks  can  be  piled  two 
or  three  deep.  The  acid  will  continue  to  develop  in  the 
curd  ;  when  it  will  string  about  an  inch  it  will  have  as- 
sumed a  stringy  or  meaty  texture,  so  that  it  will  tear  like 
the  meat  on  a  chicken's  breast. 

It  is  then  run  through  the  curd-mill  and  cut  up  into  small 
pieces.  These  pieces  are  stirred  up  every  little  while  to  air. 
In  the  course  of  another  hour  and  a  half  there  will  be  two 
inches  of  acid  on  the  curd  ;  it  will  smell  like  toasted  cheese 
when  pressed  against  the  hot-iron,  and  when  a  handful  is 
squeezed,  half  fat  and  half  whey  will  run  out  between  the 
fingers.     It  is  then  ready  to  salt.      It  is  cooled  to  80°  F.  be- 


CHEESE.  283 

fore  salting.  If  a  fast-curing  cheese  is  wanted  we  use  two 
pounds  per  hundred  pounds  of  curd;  two  and  a  half  pounds 
are  used  for  a  medium  cheese,  and  three  pounds  for  a  slow- 
curing  cheese.  The  curd  should  be  spread  out  at  an  even 
th'ickness  and  the  salt  applied  evenly.  It  should  then  be 
thoroughly  stirred  several  times. 

As  soon  as  the  harsh  feeling  has  left  the  curd  it  is  ready 
to  go  to  press.  The  screw  should  be  turned  slowly,  but 
fast  enough  so  that  a  stream  of  brine  is  kept  flowing.  The 
full  pressure  should  not  be  applied  for  ten  minutes.  In  an 
hour  the  bandages  can  be  turned  down,  and  full  pressure 
is  then  applied.  The  continuous-pressure  gang-press  made 
by  D.  H.  Burrell  and  Co.,  is  the  most  satisfactory,  as  the 
cheese  will  not  loosen  during  the  night.  The  next  day  the 
cheese  are  placed  on  the  shelves  and  the  rinds  greased. 
They  should  be  turned  and  rubbed  every  day.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  curing-room  should  be  60°  to  65°  F. ,  and 
moisture  should  be  supplied  in  dry  weather.  The  cheese 
are  boxed  and  shipped  in  about  a  month. 

B.     Cheese  Made  on  the  Farm, 

For  a  farm  dairy  it  will  be  much  easier  to  make  up 
sweet-curd  cheese  than  sour-curd  cheese,  described  in  the 
preceding.  For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  curd- 
knife,  a  cheese-vat,  and  a  cheese-press;  the  method  of  pro- 
cedure is  as  follows  : 

The  milk,  which  must  be  clean  and  sweet,  is  heated  to 
90°  F.,  and  if  any  artificial  color  is  required  it  is  added  at 
this  time.  Set  the  milk  with  enough  rennet  extract  to  co- 
agulate in  20  to  30  minutes.  About  four  ounces  of  Hansen's 
rennet  extract  per  looo  lbs.  of  milk  will  prove  a  sufficient 
amount. 

As  soon  as  the  curd  will  break  over  the  finger  cut  it 
fairly  fine  ;  then  raise  the  temperature  one  degree  in  3 
minutes  until  108°  F.  is  reached,  at  the  same  time  stirring 
carefully  to  keep  the  curd  particles  apart.  Hold  at  108°  F. 
till  the  curd  is  firm,  that  is,  till  the  pieces  do  not  feel  mushy. 
Then  draw  the  whey  and  stir  till  the  whey  is  well  drained 
out.  Salt  at  the  rate  of  2^  lbs.  of  salt  to  100  lbs.  of  curd, 
and  when  the  salt  is  well  worked  in,  put  it  to  press.  The 
cheese   should   be   cured    in    a    room   (preferably  a  cellar) 


28  i  DAIRYING. 

where  the  temperature  can  be  kept  at  60°  F.,  otherwise  it 
will  spoil.  The  cheese  should  be  cured  for  two  to  three 
months  before  it  is  sold. 

CAUSES    OF   TAINTED   MILK. 

The  causes  of  tainted  milk  have  been  classified  as  fol- 
lows, by  the  Swiss  scientist,  Dr.  Gerber: 

1.  Poor, decayed  fodders, or  irrational  methods  of  feeding. 

2.  Poor,  dirty  water,  used  for  drinking-water  or  for  the 
washing  of  utensils. 

3.  Foul  air  in  cow-stable,  or  the  cows  lying  in  their  own 
dung. 

4.  Lack  of  cleanliness  in  milking;  manure  particles  on 
udder. 

5.  Keeping  the  milk  long  in  too  warm,  poorly  ventilated 
and  dirty  places. 

6.  Neglecting  to  cool  the  milk  rapidly,  directly  after 
milking. 

7.  Lack  of  cleanliness  in  the  care  of  the  milk,  from  which 
cause  the  greater  number  of  milk  taints  arise. 

8.  Poor  transportation  facilities. 

9.  Sick  cows,  udder  diseases,  etc. 

10.  Cows  being  in  heat. 

11.  Mixing  fresh  and  old  milk  in  the  same  can. 

12.  Rusty  tin  pails  and  tin  cans  (Boggild). 

DETECTING    BAD    MILK:    DIRECTIONS   FOR    OP- 
ERATING THE  WISCONSIN  CURD-TEST. 

Cheese-makers  are  often  troubled  with  so-called ^a//«^, 
pinholed,  ox  gassy  cMxdiS  which  produce  cheese  defective  in 
flavor  and  texture.  The  cause  of  this  poor  quality  of  cheese 
often  seems  beyond  the  power  of  the  operator  to  determine. 
While  he  has  heretofore  usually  laid  it  to  "bad"  milk,  it 
was  often  impossible  for  him  to  locate  the  trouble.  By 
means  of  the  curd-test  the  operator  is  usually  able  to  tell 
which  patron  or  patrons  are  furnishing  the  bad  milk;  and 
often  in  the  patron's  herd  it  will  be  shown  to  be  due  to  a 
single  cow.      This  test  as  here   described   originated  at  the 


CHEESE.  285 

Wisconsin  Dairy  School  in  1895.  Apparatus  for  making 
the  test  is  now  furnished  by  dairy  supply-houses,  although 
a  home-made  test  can  be  improvised  by  using  pint  fruit- 
jars  and  a  wash-tub  or  some  small  tank,  in  which  the  jars 
of  milk  can  be  heated  in  warm  water. 

Details  of  the  Test.  — i.  A  pint  glass  jar  which  has 
been  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  sterilized  with  live  steam,  is 
filled  about  two  thirds  full  with  the  milk  to  be  tested. 

2.  It  is  not  necessary  to  take  an  exact  quantity  of  milk, 
but  each  jar  should  be  plainly  labeled. 

3.  The  numbered  jars  of  milk  are  placed  in  a  tank  or  tub 
of  water  which  is  heated  until  the  milk  in  the  jars  has  a 
temperature  of  98°  F. 

4.  The  thermometer  used  should  first  be  rinsed  in  boiling 
water  before  being  placed  in  another  sample,  to  avoid  con- 
tamination of  good  milk  wnth  bad  milk. 

5.  When  the  milk  has  reached  a  temperature  of  98°  F., 
add  10  drops  of  rennet  extract  to  each  jar  of  milk,  and  mix 
by  giving  the  jar  a  rotary  motion. 

6.  The  rennet  soon  curdles  the  milk,  and  the  curd  is  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  about  twenty  minutes  until  it  is  firm. 

7.  The  curd  should  then  be  cut  into  small  pieces  with  a 
case-knife,  and  after  settling  the  whey  is  poured  off. 
The  best  tests  are  made  when  the  separation  of  whey  is 
most  complete.  By  allowing  the  samples  to  stand  for  a 
short  time,  more  whey  can  be  poured  off,  and  the  curd 
thereby  rendered  firmer. 

8.  The  jars  containing  the  curd  are  then  again  placed  in 
the  tub  and  the  temperature  of  the  water  around  the  jars  is 
maintained  at  or  near  98°  F.  by  adding  hot  water  from  time 
to  time.  The  tub  or  vat  is  covered,  the  curds  are  allowed 
to  ferment  in  the  sample  jars  for  six  to  twelve  hours  and 
are  then  examined. 

9.  The  impurities  in  any  particular  sample  will  cause 
gases  to  be  developed  in  the  curd,  so  that  when  it  is  cut 
with  a  knife  pin-holes  or  gas-holes  can  be  easily  detected. 
Milks  having  a  putrefactive  or  stinking  odor  should  be 
classed  as  bad,  even  though  the  curd  has  a  good  texture 
and  is  free  from  pin-holes. 


286  DAIRYING. 

The  curds  in  this  test  are  made  under  conditions  most 
favorable  for  developing  in  them  any  defects  which  may  be 
caused  by  the  presence  of  undesirable  bacteria  that  are 
brought  to  the  milk  by  dust,  dirt,  and  other  impurities. 

The  odor  of  a  curd  should  be  noticed  as  soon  as  the  cover 
is  taken  from  a  jar.  This  is  often  sufficient  to  convince  a 
patron  that  the  milk  is  tainted,  and  may  suggest  to  him  the 
particular  cause  of  the  odor  by  its  resemblance  to  some  fa- 
miliar smell  that  he  recognizes  and  can  remove. 

A  solid  firm  curd  shows  that  the  milk  is  pure  and  clean 
and  has  been  properly  handled.  The  rather  firm  curds 
which  show  fine  pin-holes  when  cut  with  a  knife  are  indi- 
cations of  some  of  the  worst  impurities  in  milk,  while  the 
spongy  curds  show  the  presence  of  bacteria  which  in  some 
cases  have  developed  sufficient  gas  to  float  the  curd.  Per- 
sons familiar  with  milk  soon  learn  to  use  the  evidence 
obtained  by  this  test  to  distinguish  between  good  and  bad 
milk,  and  to  convince  the  milk-producers  of  the  value  of  the 
test.     (Dairy  Bull.,  Wis.  Exp.  Station.) 

THE  FER3IENTATION  TEST. 

The  Gerber  fermentation  test  (modified  by  Monrad)  fur- 
nishes a  convenient  method  for  discovering  tainted  milk  on 
the  farm  or  at  the  factory.  The  test  consists  of  a  tin  tank 
which  can  be  heated  by  means  of  a  small  lamp,  and  into 
which  a  rack  fits  holding  a  certain  number  of  cylindrical 
glass  tubes  ;  these  are  all  numbered  and  provided  with  a 
mark  and  a  tin  cover.  In  making  the  test  the  tubes  are 
filled  to  the  mark  with  milk,  the  number  of  each  tube  being 
recorded  in  a  notebook  opposite  the  name  of  the  particular 
patron  whose  milk  was  placed  therein.  The  tubes  in  the 
rack  are  put  in  the  tank,  which  is  two  thirds  full  of  water  ; 
the  temperature  of  the  water  is  kept  at  104-106°  F.  for  six 
hours,  when  the  rack  is  taken  out,  the  tubes  gently  shaken, 
and  the  appearance  of  the  milk,  its  odor,  taste,  etc.,  carefully 
noted  in  each  case.  The  tubes  are  then  again  heated  in  the 
tank  at  the  same  temperature  as  before  for  another  six 
hours,  when  observations  are  once   more  taken  of   the  ap- 


CHEESE.  287 

pearance  of  the  milk  in  each  tube.  The  tainted  milk  may- 
then  easily  be  discovered  on  account  of  the  abnormal  coagu- 
lation of  the  sample. 

Gerber  concluded  from  over  1500  tests  made  by  this 
method  : 

1.  That  good  and  properly  handled  milk  should  not  co- 
agulate in  less  than  12  hours,  nor  show  anything  abnormal 
when  coagulated. 

2.  If  it  does,  it  shows  the  milk  to  be  abnormal,  either  on 
account  of  its  chemical  composition  or  because  it  is  impreg- 
nated with  too  much  ferment  (rather,  abnormal  ferments, 
causing  an  undesirable  fermentation). 

3.  Milk  from  sick  cows,  cows  that  are  strongly  in  heat, 
or  cows  with  diseased  udders  will  always  coagulate  in  less 
than  12  hours. 

4.  Only  about  20  per  cent  of  the  tests  coagulated  within 
12  hours. 

Monrad  proposes  the  following  rules  for  the  adoption  of 
this  test  by  cheese  factories  : 

1.  *  A  proper  journal  is  kept  of  all  the  tests. 

2.  "  The  patrons  whose  milk  is  tainted  have  to  pay  the 
cost  of  making  the  test. 

3.  "  The  patrons  whose  milk  is  tainted  will  be  kept  track 
of,  and  in  case  there  is  any  loss  caused  thereby  they  will 
have  to  stand  it. 

4.  "  Patrons  having  tainted  milk  shall  be  notified  at  once, 
and  another  test  made  three  days  later.      If  then  the  milk 
is  still  bad,  a  test  of   each  cow's  milk   is  made  on  the  farm 
and  otherwise  the  reason  sought  to  be  discovered,  and  until 
then  the  milk  will  be  refused." 


288  DATRYIXG. 

DETERMINATION    OV   HUMIDITY  IN  CHEESE- 
CUKING   ROOMS. 

The  proper  degree  of  humidity  in  the  cheese-curing 
room  will  vary  with  different  kinds  of  cheese  and  at  dififer- 
ent  stages  of  the  curing  process.  Green  cheese  should  be 
placed  in  a  somewhat  drier  curing-room  than  older  ;  the 
latter  kinds,  according  to  Fleischmann,  require  a  relative 
humidity  of  90°-95°,  against  85°-90°  for  green  cheese. 

Kirchner  states  that  the  humidity  of  curing-rooms  should 
not,  in  general,  go  below  80°  or  above  95°.  Temperatures 
from  so^-yo"  F.  are  preferable  in  the  curing-room. 

The  following  temperatures  and  percentages  of  humidity 
are  recommended  by  Martiny: 

Per  Cent 

Deg.  Fahr.  Humidity. 
(a)  For  hard  cheeses  (Swiss,  etc.). 

Green 59-63  90-95 

Half  cured 54-59  85-90 

Cured 50-54  80-95 

{h)  For  soft  cheeses  (Limburger,  etc.) 50-59  80-95 

In  the  interior  of  our  continent  it  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  obtain  as  much  moisture  in  the  air  of  curing-rooms  as  is 
represented  by  the  preceding  figures  ;  the  relative  humid- 
ity of  ordinary  curing-rooms  in  this  region,  therefore,  but 
rarely  goes  over  60".  A  higher  degree  of  humidity  may 
be  obtained  by  hanging  wet  sheets  of  canvas  in  the  curing- 
room  (Decker),  or  by  similar  devices,  as  described  in  the 
thirteenth  ann.  report  of  Wis.  Experiment  Station. 

Self-recording  thermometers  are  to  be  recommended  for 
use  in  curing-rooms.  For  observation  of  relative  humidity 
a  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometer,  a  Mittchoff's  hygrometer, 
or  a  Lambrecht's  polymeter  may  be  used  to  advantage. 
Any  of  these  instruments  may  be  obtaine:^  through  dealers 
in  chemical  glassware  or  dairy  'supplies;  the  prices  range 
from  $8  to  $30. 


CHEESE. 


289 


TABLE  SHOWING   THE    RI]LATIVE  HUMIDITY   IN 
THE    AIR    OF    CrKING-R003IS.     (King.) 

Directions.— Notice  Ibat  the  table  is  in  three  column  sections.  Find 
air  temperature  in  first  column,  then  find  wet-bulb  temperature  in  second 
column,  same  division.    In  third  column  opposite  this  is  relative  humidity. 

Example.— Wx  temperature  is  50",  in  first  column;  wet-bulb  is  44°,  in 
second  column,  same  division.  Opposite  44°  is  61,  which  is  the  per  cent 
of  saturation,  or  the  relative  humidity  of  the  air. 

Caution. — Fan  the  bulb  briskly  for  a  minute  or  two  before  taking  reading-. 


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290 


DAIRYING. 


HUMIDITY  IN  THE  AIll  OF   CURIXG-KOOMS.— a?«. 


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291 


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IN   THE  AIR  OP  CURING  ROOMS. - 

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92 

SCORE  FOR  JUDGING  CHEESE. 


World's 
Fair 
1893. 

New  York,  1894. 

Wisconsin 
Dairymen's 
Assoc.  1894. 

For 

Export. 

For  Home 
Trade. 

Flavor 

45 
20 
15 
10 
10 

45 
30 
15 

10 

50 

25 

15 
10 

45 
30 
IS 

Texture  (and  body) 

Color 

Make  up  (finish)  ..     

10 

100 

100 

100 

100 

ENGLISH    SCALE    OF    POINTS    FOR    JUDGING 

CHEESE.     (McCoNNELL.) 

Perfection,  100. 

35  Flavor:  nutty,  buttery. 

25  Quality:  mellow,  rich,  melting  on  tongue. 

15  Texture:  solid,  compact. 

15  Color:  natural-like,  even. 

10  Make:  remainder,  due  to  good  making,  as  cleanliness, 
— •         salting,  perfect  rind,  etc. 
100 


293 


DA  Hi  Y  1X0. 


PERCENTAGE    COMPOSITIOX  OF  CHEESE.     (Komg.) 


Cream  cheese 

Full  cream  cheese 
Half-skim  cheese., 

Skim  cheese 

Sour-milk  cheese., 
Whey  cheese 


«i 

1    , 

V, 

1     • 

c  >< 

■J 
(2 

pi 

til 

27 

36.33 

40.71 

18.84 

1.02 

143 

38-00 

30.25 

25-35 

1.43 

21 

39-79 

23.92 

29.67 

1.79 

41 

46.00 

11.65 

34.06 

3-42 

15 

52.36 

16.03 

36.54 

.90 

7 

23.66 

ib-91 

8-90 

45.75 

3.10 
4.97 

4-73 
4.87 
4.07 
4.78 


VARIETIES  AND  ANALYSES  OF  CHEESE. 

(MCCONNELL.) 


British,  pressed — 

Cheddar,  3  months 

6  "  .... 
"  average 

Cheshire,  new 

old 

Derby 

Dunlop   

Gloucester  (single) 

(double).... 
British,  soft — 

Cream 

Stilton 

French,  soft — 

Brie 

Camembert 

Gervais  (cream) 

Neufchatel 

French,  pressed — 

Gruyere 

Roquefort 

Dutch— 

Edam  (round) 

Gouda  (flat) 

German — 

Backstein 

Swiss — 

Backstein 

Bellelay(soft) 

Emmenthaler 

Italian — 

Gorgonzola 

Parmesan 

Various — 

American  factory 

Foreign  skim,  average, 

German  sour  milk 

Whey  cheese  (cow)  — 
"  (goat).... 
Centrifugal  skim-milkcheese 


Water. 

Casein. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

36.17 
31.17 

36.96 
32.59 
31.68 
38.46 
32.50 
35-96 

24-93 
26-31 
26.38 
24.08 
32-51 
24-50 
25.87 
28.51 
21.74 

30.65 
30-35 

4-94 
28.85 

50.35 
50-16 
52-94 
44-47 

17.18 
21.85 
11.80 
14.60 

34-87 
31.20 

25-87 
27-63 

36.28 
21.90 

24.06 
46-95 

73-10 

19.80 

35-80 
37-59 
35-14 

24.44 
28.88 
30.86 

44-04 
31-34 

28.06 
41.99 

Vol 
63-63 
24.21 
25-29 
50.5 

38.12 
33-37 
25-27 
9.06 
9.10 
43.1 

CHEESE. 


293 


DISTRIBUTION     OF      INGREDIENTS     IN     CHEESE- 
MAKING.      (Cooke.) 


Total 
Solids. 

Fat. 

Casein 

and 

Albumen. 

Milk- 
sugar. 

Ash. 

Cheese 

Cheese-press  drips. . . 
Whey..   .... 

Per  cent 
54-2 
■9 
44-9 

Per  cent 

90.6 

•4 

9.0 

Per  cent 
22.0 

Per  cent 
50 
1-5 

93-5 

Per  cent 

36 

I 

63 

lOO.O 

100.0 

TOO.O 

100. 0 

100 

DISTRIBUTION    OF     FERTILIZING     INGREDIENTS 
IN  CHEESE-MAKING.     (Cooke.) 


Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash. 

1000  lbs.  of  whole  milk 

lbs. 
5-30 
1-35 
3-95 

lbs. 

1.90 

1.23 

•65 

lbs. 

100  lbs.  of  cheese 

FORMULAS  FOR  FINDING  YIELD  OF   CHEDDAR 

CH.EESE. 

The  approximate  yield  of  green  cheddar  clieese  from  100 
lbs.  of  milk  may  be   found  by  multiplying  the   per  cent  of 
fat  in  the  milk  by  2.7;  if  /  designate  the  per  cent  of  fat  in 
the  milk,  the  formula  will  therefore  be: 
Yield  of  cheese  =  2.7/. 

The  factor  2.7  will  only  hold  good  as  the  average  of  a 
large  number  of  cases.  In  extensive  investigations  during 
three  consecutive  years  Van  Slyke  found  that  the  number 
of  pounds  of  green  cheese  manufactured  for  one  pound  of 
fat  in  the  milk  varied  from  2.51  to  3.06,  the  average  figures 
being  2.73.  2.71,  and  2.72,  for  1892-94,  respectively.  For 
cured  cheese  the  factor  will  be  somewhat  lower,  viz.,  about 
2.6  on  the  average. 

If  the  percentage  of  solids  not  fat  and  of  fat  in  the  sam- 
ple of  milk  are  known,  the  following  formula,  published  by 
Dr.  Babcock  in  the  twelfth  report  of    the    Wisconsin   Ex- 


294 


DAIRYING, 


periment  Station,  will  give  close  results  (s  —  ?olids  not  fat; 
/=fat): 

Yield  of  green  cheese  =  i.58(ij-  +  -Qi/)- 
This  formula  is  based  on  a  water  content  of  37  per  cent 
in  the  cheese;  it  may  be  readily  changed  to  suit  any  par- 
ticular per  cent.  The  average  percentages  of  water  in 
green  cheese  in  Van  Slyke's  investigations  referred  to 
above  were  36.41,  37.05,  and  36.70  per  cent  for  the  years 
1892-94,  respectively. 

•  If  the  percentages  of  casein  and  fat  in  the  milk  are  both 
known,  the  yield  of  cheese  may  be  calculated  from  the  fol- 
lowing formula,  which  will  give  fairly  correct  results: 

Yield  of  cheese  =  1.1/-J-  2.5  casein.         (Babcock.) 


YIELD  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  CHEESE  FROM 
100   LBS.  OF   MILK.     (Fleischmann.) 


Green 
Cheese. 

Cured 
Cheese. 

Soft  full-cream  cheese  intended   for  immediate 

consumption 

Very  soft  full-cream  cheeses  (Brie,  Camembert, 

Neufchatel,  etc.) 

Somewhat  firmer,  full-cream  soft  cheeses  (Lim- 

burger,  Remondon  cheese,  etc  ) 

Soft  half-skim  cheese  ( Limburg),  i^  lbs.  butter  and 
Soft  skim  cheeses  {a  la  Brie,  Camembert,  Livarot. 

Backstein,  etc.),  3-3.4  lbs.  butter  and   

Roquefort  cheese  (made  from  sheeps'  milk) 

Full-milk,  from  American  and  English  cheeses, 

and  .75  lbs.  whey-butter. 
Full-milk  from  Dutch  and  Swiss  cheeses 

and  .75  lbs.  whey-butter. 

Half-skim  firm  cheeses.  1.6  lbs.  butter  and 

Skim-milk  cheese,  3-3  5  lbs   butter  and   .......   .. 

lbs. 

25-33 
18-22 

13-16 
12-13 

7.5-12 
18 
9-1 1 

8-1 T 
7-10 

5-7 

7.5-9 
3-5-5-5 

6-7 

lbs. 

12-15 

9-1 1 
9-11 

6.5-9 
12-14. 5 
8-9 

7-10 

51 

5-6 
2-3 

Scandinavian  "  (jammelost  " 

and  3-3.5  lbs.  butter. 

and  butter  and  skim-milk  cheese. 

Whey  in  manufacture  of  full-cream  cheese,  73-88  lbs.,  average  81  lbs. 
"      "  "  "  half-skim        "         72-80    "  "        76   " 

"      '•  "  "  skim  cheese  66-76    "  "        71    " 

Under  similar  conditions  5-7  lbs.  less  of  whey  are  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soft  cheese  than  in  that  of  firm  cheese. 

The  loss  sustained  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese  amounts  on  the  average 
to  3  lbs.  per  100  lbs.  of  milk,  not  considering  the  losses  incurred  in  the 
curing  of  the  cheese. 


CHEESE. 


295 


AVERAGE  LOSS    OF   AMERICAN    CHEDDAR 
CHEESE   IN  CURING.     (Babcock.) 


15 

Period 
Covered. 

Average 
Age. 

No.  of 
Cheese. 

Total 
Weight 
Green. 

Total 
Weight 
Cured. 

Loss. 

Days. 

Davs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  Cent. 

I 

I-IO 

6 

f-9 

2,812 

2.741.5 

70. 5 

2.51 

2 

I1-20 

16 

242 

7,356.9 

7,077.0 

279.9 

3. CO 

3 

21-30 

25 

298 

8,530-5 

8.160.4 

370.1 

4.34 

.    4 

31-60 

41 

417 

12,353-3 

11,684.4 

668.9 

5.41 

1    5 

Over  60 

141 

172 

6,244.4 

5,736.0 

508.4 

8. II 

Total  number  of  cheese  in  preceding  trials  12^5. 

Average  weight  of  green  cheese  .. 30.2  lbs. 

"  temperature  of  curing-room 61°  F.  (range  55-70°). 

"  humidity  of  air  in  curing-room 50  per  cent. 


LOSS    IN     WEIGHT     OF     DIFFERENT    KINDS     OF 

CHEESE  DURING  CURING.     (Martinv.^ 

Per  Cent. 
Swiss  (Emmenthal) — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 5  months     8-14 


"  "      half-skimmed  milk  will  lose  in  8 

"  "      skim-milk  will  lose  in 6 

Tilsit- 
made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 4 

Dutch  (Gouda) — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 3 

"  "      skim       "         '*       "     " 4 

American  Cheddar — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 2 

"       "     " 4 

Limburger  or  Remoudon — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 2^ 

Brick  cheese — 

made  from  skim-milk  will  lose  in 2h 

Camembert,  Brie,  Neufchatel,  etc. — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 2 

Sour-milk  cheese — 

made  from  whole  milk  will  lose  in 3^ 


15-20 
12-15 

12-25 

20-28 
15-25 

5 
6-7 

16-28 

15-30 

20-35 

50-60 


296 


DAIRYIKG. 


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CS       © 


CHEESE.  297 


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CHEESE. 


icU^i 


WHEY  TO  BE  ALLOWED  AT  CHEESE  FACTORIES 
FOK    QLANTITIES    OF    3iILK    FROM   30   TO  SiiO 

POUNDS.      ^RObEKTSON.j 

The  fi.^ures  in  the  columns  denote  the  inches  of  whey. 


Weight  of 

Diameters 

of  Milk-cans  in  Inches. 

Milk  in 

Pounds. 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

30 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

s 

6 

35 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

40 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

45 

3 

4 

4 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

50 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

55 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

60 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

11 

65 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

70 

5 

5 

6 

7 

7 

8 

10 

II 

13 

75 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

14 

80 

5 

6 

7 

8 

8 

10 

II 

12 

15 

85 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

13 

16 

90 

6 

7 

7 

9 

9 

II 

12 

14 

17 

95 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

13 

15 

18 

100 

7 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

14 

'^ 

19 

105 

7 

8 

9 

9 

II 

13 

-5 

16 

19 

no 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

13 

15 

17 

20 

115 

8 

9 

10 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18    21 

120 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

14 

17 

19  1  22 

1-^5 

8 

9 

10 

11 

13 

15 

17 

19 

23 

130 

9 

10 

II 

J2 

'3 

16 

18 

20 

24 

135 

9 

10 

II 

12 

14 

16 

19 

21 

140 

9 

lO 

12 

13 

14 

17 

20 

22 

145 

10 

II 

12 

13 

15 

17 

20 

23 

150 

10 

11 

12 

14 

15 

18 

21 

24 

155 

10 

II 

13 

15 

16 

19 

22 

160 

II 

12 

13 

15 

i6 

19 

22 

165 

II 

12 

14 

I 'J 

17 

20 

23 

170 

11 

12 

14 

16 

17 

20 

23 

175 

12 

13 

^5 

16 

18 

21 

24 

180 

12 

13 

15 

17 

i3 

i2 

24 

185 

12 

14 

IS 

^7 

19 

22 

190 

13 

14 

16 

18 

T9 

23 

195 

13 

M 

16 

i3 

no 

'3 

200 

13 

15 

17 

18 

20 

24 

205 

14 

15 

17 

19 

21 

210 

14 
14 
15 

t6 
16 
16 

18 
18 
18 

19 
20 
20 

21 
22 
23 

A 

[^ 

215 
220 

HHV 

?5^ 

225 

15 

17 

19 

21 

^4 

A' 

230 

235 

;i 

17 
18 

19 
19 

21 
22 

24 

((^ 

XIS 

33/ 

jNn 

240 
245 

16 

16 

18 
18 

20 
20 

22 
23 

V 

L^vJ 

HX  dC 

93j^ 

250 

17 

19 

21 

23 

"'^=^-^ 

i---^^ 

260 

17 

19 

22 

24 

270 

18 

20 

22 

280 

19 

21 

23 

290 

19 

22 

24 

300 

20 

23 

24 

310 

21 

23 

320 

21 

24 

330 

23 

340 

23 

350 

23 

360 

24 

1      1 

300  DAIRYING. 


VI.  MANAGEMENT    OF    CREAMERIES    AND 
CHEESE    FACTORIES. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  TAKING  AND  PRESERVING 
COMPOSITE  SAMPLES  OF  MILK  IN  CREAMER- 
IES AND  CHEESE-FACTORIES.     (Farrington). 

The  modern  creamery  and  cheese-factory  uses  the  Bab- 
cock  test  for  determining  the  richness  of  the  milk  delivered 
by  each  patron.  The  most  common  and  satisfactory  method 
of  paying  for  the  milk  according  to  its  test  is  to  take  a  small 
sample  of  each  lot  of  milk  each  day,  pour  this  into  a  cov- 
ered glass  jar  containing  a  small  amount  of  some  preserva- 
tive, and  at  the  end  of  a  week  or  ten  days  test  this  composite 
sample.  The  essential  features  of  the  process  are  given  in 
the  following  directions: 

1.  Provide  a  pint  or  quart  jar  or  bottle  for  each  patron. 

2.  Label  each  bottle  with  a  number,  giving  the  same 
number  to  a  patron  on  the  milk-recording  sheet. 

3.  Composite-test  sample-bottles  made  for  this  purpose 
with  a  tin  cover  and  numbered  brass  tag  wired  to  the  neck 
of  each  bottle  can  be  obtained  of  creamery  supply-firms. 

4.  These  sample-bottles  should  be  placed  on  shelves 
within  easy  reach  of  the  man  at  the  weigh-can,  and  pro- 
tected from  the  light. 

5.  A  small  quantity  of  powdered  potassium  bichromate, 
corrosive  sublimate,  formaline,  borax,  or  peservaline  is  put 
into  each  clean  bottle,  to  keep  the  milk  from  souring  until 
testing-day.  Some  of  these  preservatives  are  put  up  in 
tablet  form,  each  tablet  containing  the  necessary  amount 
to  use  in  one  sample. 

6.  After  each  lot  of  milk  is  poured  into  the  factory  weigh- 
can  and  weighed,  a  small  amount  of  it  is  dipped  from  the 
can  and  poured  into  the  proper  sample-bottle. 

7.  These   samples  are  usually  taken  with  a  small  (i-oz.) 


CREAMERIES   AND    CHEESE   FACTORIES.        301 

tin  dipper,  a  Scovell  sampling-tube,  or  from  a  drip  in  the 
conductor-spout. 

8.  Each  lot  of  milk  sampled  must  be  sweet,  containing 
no  clots,  lumps  of  curdled  milk,  or  small  butter-granules. 
The  sample  should  be  taken  just  as  soon  as  the  milk  is 
weighed,  and  while  it  is  evenly  mixed. 

9.  The  use  of  a  small  (i-oz.)  tin  dipper  for  taking  the 
composite  sample  has  been  proved  to  be  practically  correct. 
As  the  quantities  of  milk  delivered  from  day  to  day  by 
each  patron  vary  but  little,  the  error  introduced  by  taking 
the  same  amount  of  milk  for  each  sample  is  too  small  to 
be  worth  considering  in  factory  work,  and  this  method  of 
composite  sampling  is  usually  adopted  in  separator  cream- 
eries and  in  cheese-factories,  where  the  payment  of  the 
milk  is  based  on  its  quality. 

10.  When  it  is  desired  to  vary  the  size  of  the  samples  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  milk  delivered  each  day  by  a 
patron,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  "milk-thief"  or  a  Scovell 
sampling-tube.  In  using  either  of  these  tubes,  the  size  of 
the  sample  is  regulated  by  the  amount  of  milk  in  the  weigh- 
can.      In  all  cases  cylindrical  sampling-cans  must  be  used. 

11.  Continue  adding  a  sample  of  each  patron's  milk  to  his 
particular  jar  every  time  he  delivers  milk,  for  a  week  or  ten 
days  ;  then  test  this  composite  sample. 

12.  The  composite  sample-jars  should  be  kept  covered, 
to  prevent  loss  by  evaporation,  and  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 
Every  time  a  new  portion  of  milk  is  added  to  the  jar  it 
should  be  given  a  horizontal  rotary  motion  to  mix  the  cream 
already  formed  in  the  jar  with  the  milk,  and  to  rinse  off  the 
cream  sticking  to  its  side.  Unless  this  is  done  every  time 
fresh  portions  of  milk  are  added  to  the  jar  the  cream  on  the 
milk  becomes  lumpy  and  sticks  in  patches  to  the  side  of 
the  jar,  thus  making  it  nearly  impossible  to  evenly  dis- 
tribute this  cream  through  the  entire  sample. 

13.  Composite  samples  having  patches  of  dried  cream  on 
the  inside  of  the  jar  are  the  result  of  carelessness  or  igno- 
rance on  the  part  of  the  operator. 

14.  A  test  of  the  composite  sample  takes  the  place  of  the 
daily  tests  of  each  lot  of  milk  and  gives  accurate  ^nforma- 


303  DAIRYING. 

tion  regarding  the  average  quality  of  the  milk  delivered  by 
each  patron  during  the  period  of  sampling. 

15.  The  weight  of  butter-fat  which  each  patron  brought 
to  factory  in  his  milk  during  the  time  covered  by  the  sam- 
pling is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  total  weight  of  milk 
delivered  during  the  sampling  period  by  the  test  of  the 
composite  sample,  divided  by  100. 

PAYMENT  OF  MILK  AT  CREAMERIES  AND 
CHEESE  FACTORIES.* 

Numerous  systematic  and  extensive  experiments  by  vari- 
ous scientists  have  proved  that  the  value  of  milk  for  both 
butter  and  cheese  production  stands  in  direct  proportion  to 
its  fat  content.  Patrons  of  separator  cheese  and  butter 
factories  should  therefore  receive  payment  for  the  milk  de- 
livered by  them  according  to  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
milk,  i.e.,  according  to  the  quantity  of  fat  delivered  in  their 
milk.  The  same  applies  to  gathered-cream  factories  as 
well. 

The  tables  given  on  pp.  305-306  will  aid  in  the  calculation 
cf  the  value  of  milks  of  different  richness,  according  to 
prices  agreed  upon.  In  paying  for  the  milk  delivered  by 
patrons,  four,  or,  essentially,  three,  different  methods  are 
followed  at  different  factories,  all  of  which  are  just  to  all 
parties  concerned.  The  methods  and  the  directions  for 
using  the  tables  in  each  case  are  given  below.  The  tables 
and  discussions  entered  upon  are  largely  taken  from  Ver- 
mont Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  16. 

*  S^&  Farrington-Woll,  "Testing  Milk  and  its  Products,"  Sixth  Ed., 
pp.  185-196,  248-251. 


CREAMERIES  AND    CHEESE   FACTORIES.  303 

METHODS  OF  PAYMENT  FOR  MILK  AT   CHEESE 
AND  BUTTER  FACTORIES. 

1.  A  certain  price  is  to  be  paid  per  one  hundred  lbs.  of  milk 
containing  a  definite  per  cent  of  fat  (e.g.,  $i.oo  per  lOO  lbs. 
of  four  per  cent  milk).  By  referring  to  the  second  half  of 
the  table  on  p.  271  we  find  $1.00  opposite  4.00  per  cent  of 
fat;  the  figures  in  the  same  column  as  $1.00  then  give  the 
value  of  100  lbs.  of  milk  containing  percentages  of  fat  rang- 
ing from  3.00  to  5.00;  e.g.,  100  lbs.  of  3  per  cent  milk  is 
worth  75  cents,  of  4.5  per  cent  milk  $1.13,  of  5.40  per  cent 
milk  $1.35,  etc. 

2.  A  certain  price  is  to  be  paid  per  pound  of  fat  delivered. 
If  21  cents  is  the  price  agreed  upon  we  multiply  .21  by  three, 
and  the  product,  .63,  gives  the  amount  in  dollars  to  be  paid 
per  100  lbs.  of  three  per  cent  milk.  The  column  in  which 
the  figure  .63  occurs  opposite  3.0  per  ct.  is  then  to  be  used 
in  the  calculations  as  long  as  the  price  is  paid,  and  3.5  per 
cent  milk  will  be  paid  with  73  cents  per  100  lbs.,  5.3  per  ct. 
milk  $1.10  per  100  lbs.,  etc. 

Example  :  Patron  A  delivers  840  lbs.  of  milk  during  one 
week,  containing,  according  to  the  test  made,  4.3  per  cent 
fat.  If  the  price  agreed  upon  per  pound  of  fat  was  as  be- 
fore stated,  he  is  to  receive  90  cents  per  100  lbs.  of  milk,  or 
$7.56  in  all. 

Patron  B,  sending  625  lbs.  of  milk  testing  3.45  per  cent, 
will  receive  6.25  X  .72  =  $4.50,  etc.  In  the  table  only 
tenths  of  per  cents  are  given;  3.45  being  half-way  between 
3.40  and  3.50,  for  which  percentages  71  and  73  cents  are  to 
be  paid  respectively,  we  multiply  by  the  mean  of  the  two 
values,  or  .72.  If  a  test  differs  less  than  five-hundredths 
from  any  percentages  given  in  the  table,  the  nearest  figure 
is  chosen. 

3.  Patrons  are  to  be  paid  what  is  received  for  the  butter,  less 
a  certain  amount  for  cost  of  making  and  marketing.  Multiply 
each  man's  milk  by  the  per  cent  of  fat  it  contains,  and  the 
sum  of  the  several  products  will  be  the  total  amount  of  fat 
contained  in  the  day's  milk.  Divide  the  pounds  of  butter 
made  from   the  milk  by  the  pounds  of  fat  it  contained,  to 


304  DAIRYING. 

find  how  much  butter  each  pound  of  fat  makes.  Multiply- 
ing the  amount  received  per  pound  of  butter,  less  the  cost 
of  making,  etc.,  by  this  last  result  will  give  the  amount  to 
be  paid  for  each  pound  of  fat  delivered. 

Example :  Suppose  the  patrons  furnish  milk  containing 
in  all  400  lbs.  of  fat,  which  made  460  lbs.  of  butter,  selling 
for  27  cents  per  pound.  The  expense  of  making  the  butter 
is  found  to  be,  e.g.,  4  cents  per  pound.  27-4=  23  cents; 
460  divided  by  400  equals  1.15;  23  multiplied  by  1.15  equals 
26.45,  which  is  the  amount,  in  cents,  to  be  paid  per  pound 
of  fat  delivered;  26.45  X  3  =  79-35.  or  nearest  79  cents,  is 
then  the  money  to  be  paid  for  100  lbs.  of  3  per  cent  milk, 
and  (see  table)  90  cents  for  100  lbs.  of  3.40  per  cent  milk, 
$1.24  for  100  lbs.  of  4.7  per  cent  milk,  etc. 

4.  A  certain  price  is  to  be  paid  per  lOO  lbs.  of  milk  of  average 
quality.  Find  the  total  fat  contained  in  the  milk  as  before; 
divide  this  amount  by  the  total  weight  of  milk  delivered, 
and  the  result  will  be  the  average  per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
milk.  Starting  from  this  per  cent  at  the  left  of  the  table, 
go  to  the  right  until  the  price  per  100  lbs.  agreed  upon  is 
reached;  the  perpendicular  column  in  which  this  figure  is 
found  is  the  one  to  be  used.  Example:  Suppose  milk  of 
average  quality  is  to  be  paid  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds, 
and  the  farmers  furnish  8500  lbs.  of  milk,  containing  in  all 
440  lbs.  of  fat;  440  divided  by  85.00  then  equals  5.18,  the 
number  nearest  to  which  in  the  table  is  5.20  per  cent.  To 
the  right  of  5.20  per  cent  $1.00  is  found  in  the  column 
headed  .58,  which  column  would  be  the  one  to  use. 


CREAMERIES   AND   CHEESE   FACTORIES. 


305 


PRICE  OF  MILK  OF  DIFFERENT   RICHNESS   PER 
lOO   POUNDS. 


Price  per  i 

00  lbs.  of  Milk 

,  in  dollars  an 

d  cents. 

I.OO 

•97 

.94 

.91 

.88 

.86 

.83 

.8t 

•79 

•77 

1.03 

I.OO 

•97 

•94 

.91 

.89 

.86 

.84 

.82 

■v^ 

1.07 

1.03 

I.OO 

•97 

94 

.91 

.89 

.86 

•85 

.82 

1. 10 

1.07 

1.03 

I.OO 

•97 

•  94 

.92 

.89 

.87 

.84 

I-I3 

1. 10 

1.06 

1.03 

I.OO 

■97 

•94 

.92 

.90 

.87 

I.  7 

1-^3 

1.09 

1.06 

1.03 

1.00 

•97 

•95 

•93 

■89 

1.20 

1. 16 

1. 12 

1.09 

1.06 

1.03 

I.OO 

•97 

•95 

.92 

1-23 

1. 19 

1. 16 

1. 12 

1.09 

1.06 

1.03 

J  .00 

.98 

•94 

1.27 

1.23 

1.19 

^•15 

1. 12 

1.09 

1.06 

1.03 

1 .00 

•97 

1 .30 

1.26 

1.22 

1. 18 

I-I5 

I. II 

1.08 

1.06 

1.03 

I.OO 

1-33 

1.29 

1-25 

1. 21 

1. 18 

1. 14 

I. II 

1.08 

1.06 

1.02 

1-37 

1.32 

1.28 

1.24 

1. 21 

1. 17 

1. 14 

I. II 

1.08 

I  •OS 

1.40 

1-35 

I-3I 

1.27 

1.24 

1.20 

1. 17 

X.14 

I. II 

1.07 

1-43 

1-39 

1-34 

1.30 

1.26 

1.23 

1. 19 

1.17 

1. 14 

1. 10 

1.47 

-42 

1.38 

1-33 

1.29 

1.26 

1.22 

1. 19 

1.16 

I.I<2 

1-50 

1.45 

1. 41 

X.36 

1.32 

1.29 

1.25 

1.22 

1. 19 

I.I5 

1-53 

1.48 

1.44 

I  39 

1.35 

131 

1.28 

1.25 

1. 21 

1. 17 

'i^ 

1.52 

1.47 

1.42 

1.38 

1-34 

I-3I 

1.28 

1.24 

1.20 

1.60 

I  55 

1.50 

1-45 

1. 41 

1-37 

1-33 

1.30 

1.27 

1.23 

1.63 

1.58 

1-53 

1.48 

1.44 

1.40 

1.36 

1-33 

1.29 

1-25 

1.67 

1. 61 

1  56 

1.52 

1.47 

^•43 

^•39 

T^36 

1.32 

1.28 

1.70 

r.65 

1-59 

1-55 

1.50 

1.46 

1.42 

1^39 

^•35 

1.30 

1-73 

1.68 

1.63 

1.58 

1-53 

1.49 

1.44 

1. 41 

^•37 

1^33 

1.77 

1. 71 

1.66 

1. 61 

1.56 

1.51 

^•47 

1.44 

1.40 

I  35 

1.80 

1-74 

1.69 

1.64 

1-59 

^•54 

150 

1.47 

1.42 

1.38 

1.83 

1.77 

1.72 

1.67 

1.62 

1-57 

153 

1.50 

1-45 

I  41 

1.87 

1. 81 

1-75 

1.70 

1.65 

1.60 

1.56 

^•52 

1.48 

1,44 

I. go 

1.84 

1.78 

1-73 

1.68 

1.63 

1.58 

1^55 

1.50 

1.46 

1-93 

1.87 

1.81 

1.76 

1. 71 

1.66 

1. 61 

1^57 

i^53 

1.49 

1.07 

1.90 

1.84 

1.79 

1.74 

1.69 

1.64 

1.60 

1.56 

I-5I 

2.00 

1.94 

1.88 

X.82 

1.76 

1. 71 

1.67 

1.62 

1.58 

1-54 

3.00 

•75 

•73 

•71 

.70 

.68 

.67 

.6s 

.64 

•63 

.61 

3.10 

.78 

•75 

•73 

.72 

.70 

.6q 

.67 

.66 

.65 

•63 

3.20 

.80 

•78 

.76 

•75 

•73 

•71 

.6q 

.68 

.67 

•65 

3-30 

.83 

.80 

•78 

•77 

•75 

•74 

.72 

.70 

.69 

.67 

3-4° 

.85 

.83 

.81 

•79 

•77 

.76 

•74 

•73 

•71 

.69 

3  50 

.88 

•85 

•83 

.82 

•79 

•78 

.76 

•75 

•73 

•71 

3.60 

.QO 

.88 

.85 

.84 

.82 

.80 

•78 

•77 

•75 

•73 

3-7° 

•93 

.90 

.88 

.86 

.84 

.83 

.80 

•79 

•77 

•75 

3^8o 

•95 

•93 

.90 

.89 

.86 

.85 

.82 

.81 

.80 

•77 

3^90 

.98 

•95 

.92 

.91 

.88 

•  87 

•8S 

•83 

.82 

•79 

4.00 

I.OO 

•97 

•95 

•93 

.91 

.89 

.87 

.8s 

.84 

.81 

4.10 

1.03 

I.OO 

•97 

.96 

•93 

.91 

.89 

.87 

.86 

•83 

4  20 

1.05 

1.02 

1.00 

.98 

•95 

•94 

.91 

.90 

.88 

•85 

4^3° 

1.08 

1.05 

1.02 

I.OO 

.98 

.96 

•93 

.92 

.90 

.88 

4.40 

1. 10 

1.07 

1.05 

1.02 

I.OO 

.98 

•95 

•94 

.92 

.90 

DAIRYING. 


PRICE  OF  MILK  PER  100  POV^DS.—  Contimted. 


P.ct. 
Fat. 

Price  per 

too  lbs. 

of  Milk,  in  dollars  and  cents. 

4-50 

113 

1 .10 

1.07 

1.05 

1.02 

1. 00 

•97 

.96 

•94 

.92 

4.60 

1-15 

1. 12 

1. 10 

I  07 

1.05 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

•9^ 

•94 

4.70 

1. 18 

115 

1.12 

1.09 

1.07 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

.96 

4.80 

1.20 

1. 17 

1. 14 

1. 12 

1.09 

1.07 

1.07 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

4.90 

1-23 

1.20 

1.17 

1.14 

I.  n 

1.09 

1.07 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

5.00 

1.25 

1.22 

1.19 

1. 16 

1. 14 

I. II 

1.09 

1.06 

1.04 

1.02 

S-io 

1.28 

1.24 

1. 21 

1. 19 

T.16 

I-I3 

I. II 

1.09 

1.06 

1.04 

5-20 

1.30 

1.27 

1.24 

1. 21 

1. 18 

1. 16 

I-I3 

I. II 

1.08 

1.06 

5-30 

I  33 

T.29 

1.26 

1.23 

1.20 

1. 18 

I-I5 

I-I3 

1. 10 

1.08 

540 

1-35 

1.32 

1.29 

1.26 

1-23 

1.20 

1. 17 

115 

1. 12 

1. 10 

5  50 

1.38 

1-34 

I-3I 

1.28 

1-25 

1.22 

1.20 

1. 17 

1. 14 

1. 12 

5.60 

1.40 

1-37 

1.34 

£.30 

1.27 

1.24 

T.22 

1  19 

1. 17 

1. 14 

5-70 

1-43 

1-39 

1.36 

1-33 

1.30 

1.27 

X.24 

1. 21 

1.19 

1. 16 

5.80 

1.45 

1. 41 

1.39 

1-35 

1.32 

1.29 

1.26 

1.23 

1. 21 

1. 18 

5-90 

1.48 

1.44 

1.41 

1.38 

1-34 

1-31 

1.28 

1.26 

1.23 

1.20 

6.00 

1.50 

1.46 

1-43 

1.40 

1.36 

1-33 

1.30 

1.28 

1.25 

X.22 

3.00 

.60 

■59 

•58 

•57 

•56 

•55 

•54 

•53 

•52 

•51 

•50 

3.10 

.62 

.61 

.60 

•59 

•58 

•57 

•56 

•55 

•54 

•53 

•52 

3.20 

.64 

■63 

.62 

.61 

.60 

•59 

•58 

•57 

•55 

•54 

•53 

3-30 

.66 

•65 

.64 

•63 

.62 

.60 

•59 

.58 

•57 

•56 

•55 

3-40 

.68 

.67 

.66 

•65 

•63 

.62 

.61 

.60 

•59 

•58 

•57 

3^50 

.70 

.69 

.68 

.66 

•65 

.64 

.63 

.62 

.61 

•59 

•58 

3.60 

•72 

•71 

.70 

.68 

.67 

.66 

•65 

.64 

.62 

.61 

.60 

3-70 

•74 

•73 

•71 

.70 

.69 

.68 

.67 

•65 

.64 

•63 

.62 

3.80 

.76 

•75 

•73 

.72 

•71 

.70 

.68 

.67 

.66 

•f§ 

•63 

3.90 

•78 

•77 

•75 

•74 

■73 

.71 

.70 

.69 

.67 

.66 

•65 

4.00 

.80 

•79 

•77 

.76 

•75 

•73 

•72 

•71 

•  69 

.68 

.67 

4.10 

.82 

.81 

•79 

.78 

.76 

•75 

•74 

.72 

•7» 

.70 

.68 

4.20 

.84 

•83 

.81 

.80 

.78 

■77 

•75 

•74 

■73 

•71 

.70 

4-30 

.86 

.84 

•83 

.82 

.80 

•79 

•77 

.76 

•74 

•73 

•72 

4.40 

.88 

86 

■85 

•83 

.82 

.80 

•79 

.78 

.76 

•75 

■73 

4  50 

.90 

.88 

•87 

•85 

.84 

.82 

.81 

•79 

•79 

.76 

■75 

4.60 

.92 

.90 

.89 

.87 

.86 

.84 

•83 

.81 

.80 

•78 

•77 

4.70 

•94 

.92 

.91 

.89 

.88 

.86 

.84 

•83 

.81 

.80 

•78 

4.80 

.96 

•94 

•93 

■91 

.90 

.88 

.86 

•85 

.83 

.81 

.80 

4.90 

.98 

.96 

•94 

•93 

.91 

.90 

.88 

.86 

•85 

•83 

.82 

S-oo 

1. 00 

.98 

.96 

.95 

•93 

.91 

.90 

.88 

.86 

.85 

.83 

5.10 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

.96 

•95 

•93 

.92 

.90 

.88 

.86 

•^J 

S^20 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

•97 

■95 

•93 

.92 

.90 

.88 

.87 

530 

1.06 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

•99 

•97 

•95 

■93 

.92 

.90 

.88 

5  40 

1.08 

1. 06 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

•99 

•97 

•95 

•93 

.92 

.90 

5-50 

1. 10 

1.08 

1.06 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

•99 

•97 

•95 

•93 

.92 

5^6o 

1. 12 

1. 10 

1.08 

1.06 

1.04 

i.oa 

1. 00 

.98 

■97 

•95 

•93 

5-70 

1. 14 

1. 12 

I.'IO 

1.08 

1.06 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

•97 

•95 

5.80 

1. 16 

1. 14 

1. 12 

1.09 

1.07 

1.05 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

•97 

5-90 

1. 18 

1. 16 

^■13 

I. II 

1.09 

1.07 

1.05 

1.04 

1.02 

1. 00 

.98 

6.00 

I  20 

1. 18 

i^'S 

1^13 

I. II 

1.09 

1.07 

1-05 

1.03 

1.02 

I  .c>o 

CREAMERIES    AND    CIIEESK    FACTORIES.  307 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    MAKING    DIVIDENDS    IN 
CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES 

According  to  the  Per  Cent  of  Fat  in  Milk  Delivered. 

(S.  M.  Babcock,  in  "  Hoard's  Dairyman.") 

Find  the  amount  of  fat  contained  in  the  milk  of  each 
patron  for  any  period  desired,  by  multiplying  the  pounds 
of  milk  expressed  in  hundreds  by  the  per  cent  of  fat  found 
by  the  test.  Add  together  the  amount  of  fat  from  all  the 
patrons,  thus  obtaining  the  total  pounds  of  fat  delivered  at 
ihe  factory.  Deduct  the  expenses  of  manufacture,  etc., 
from  the  money  received  from  sales,  and  divide  the  re- 
mainder by  the  total  fat.  This  gives  the  price  to  be  paid 
for  each  pound  of  fat.  Multiply  the  pounds  of  fat  de- 
livered by  each  patron  by  the  price;  the  product  will  be 
the  amount  which  he  is  to  receive. 

If  it  is  desired  to  know  the  number  of  pounds  of  butter 
made  from  each  patron's  milk,  divide  the  total  yield  of  but- 
ter by  the  total  fat  delivered;  the  quotient  will  be  the 
amount  of  butter  made  from  one  pound  of  fat.  The  fat 
delivered  by  each  patron  multiplied  by  this  figure  will  give 
the  pounds  of  butter  to  be  credited  to  each  patron. 

The  accompanying  table  gives  the  butter  yield  from  loo 
lbs.  of  milk,  when  the  pounds  of  butter  from  one  pound  of 
fat  range  from  i.io  to  1.20,  and  for  milks  containing  from 
3  to  6  per  cent  of  fat.  To  use  the  table  find  in  the  upper 
horizontal  line  the  number  corresponding  most  nearly  to  the 
number  of  pounds  of  butter  from  one  pound  of  fat.  The 
vertical  column  in  which  this  falls  gives  the  pounds  of 
butter  from  100  pounds  of  milk  containing  the  per  cents  of 
fat  given  in  the  outside  columns. 

Example :  A  creamery  receives  during  one  month  250,000 
lbs.  of  milk,  which  contained  9531  lbs.  of  fat;  the  yield  of 
butter  for  the  same  period  was  10,983  lbs.,  which  sold  for 
29  cents  per  pound,  bringing  $3185.07.  The  expense  for 
making,  etc.,  was  four  cents  per  pound,  amounting  to 
$439.32,  leaving  $2745.75  to  be  divided  among  the  patrons. 
Dividing  this  sum  by  9531,  the  total  number  of  pounds  of 
fat  gives  28.8  cents  per  pound  for  the  fat.  This  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat  in  each  patron's  milk  gives 
the  amount  which  he  should  be  paid. 


30S 


Dairy  iKG. 


The  number  of  pounds  of  butter,  10,983,  divided  by  9531, 
the  number  of  pounds  of  fat,  gives  1.152  pounds  of  butter 
from  each  pound  of  fat.  The  column  headed  1.15  in  the 
table  is  nearest  to  this  ratio,  and  will  therefore  give  the 
butter  obtained  from  100  lbs.  of  milk  containing  different 
per  cents  of  fat. 

If  a  patron  delivered  9420  lbs.  of  milk  containing  3.2  per 
cent  of  fat  during  the  period  considered,  his  milk  would 
have  contained  301.44  lbs.  of  fat,  which  at  28.8  cents  per 
pound  would  have  amounted  to  $86.81.  It  would  have 
made  301.44  X  1.152  =  347.26  lbs.  of  butter.  In  the  column 
headed  1.15  in  the  table,  opposite  3.2  per  cent  of  fat,  we 
find  3.68,  which  is  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat  from  100 
lbs.  of  this  patron's  milk.  The  error  from  the  use  of  the 
table  in  this  way  will  never  amount  to  more  than  i  ounce 
per  100  lbs.  of  milk. 

YiM  of  Butter  frovi  One  Hundred  Lbs.  of  Milk,  in  Lbs. 


c 

Lbs.  0^ 

Butter 

per  Pound  of  Fat. 

^ 

t.IO 

I. II 

1. 12 

1. 13 

1. 14 

1. 15 

1. 16 

1.17 

3-51 

1. 18 

1. 19 

1.20 
3.60 

a. 

3-0 

3-3° 

3-33 

3.. 36 

3-39 

3-42 

3-45 

3-48 

3-54 

3-57 

3.0 

3-1 

341 

3-441 

3-472 

3-503 

3.534 

3.565 

3.596 

3.627 

3.658 

3 -^^2 

3.72 

3.' 

3.2 

3-52 

3-552 

3-584 

3.616 

3-648 

3.680 

3.712 

3-744 

3-776 

3.808 

3.84 

3.' 

3-3 

3.63 

3.663 

3-696 

3-729 

3-762 

3-795 

3.828 

3.861 

3-894 

3.927 

3.96 

3.3 

3-4 

3-74 

3-774 

3. 80S 

3.842 

3.870 

3.910 

3-944 

3-978 

4.012 

4.046 

4.08 

3.4 

3-5 

3-85 

3-885 

3.920 

3-955 

3-990 

4  025 

4.060 

4.095 

4.130 

4.165 

4.20 

3.5 

3.6 

3-96 

3-996 

4.032 

4.068 

4  104 

4.140 

4-176 

4.212 

4.248 

4.284 

4-32 

3-6 

3  7 

4.07 

4.107 

4.144 

4. 181 

4.218 

4.255 

4.292 

4.329 

4.366 

4-403 

4.44 

3-7 

38 

4.18 

4.218 

4-256 

4.294 

4.332 

4.370 

4-40S 

4-446 

4.484;4.522 

^.56 

3-8 

3-9 

4.29 

4.329 

4.368 

4.407 

4.446 

4.485 

4.524 

4  503 

4.602 

4.641 

4.68 

3.9 

4.0 

4.40 

4.440 

4  480 

4.520 

4  560 

4 .  600 

4.640 

4.680 

4.720 

4-760 

4.80 

4.0 

4.1 

4-51 

4.551 

4.592 

4.633 

4.674 

4-715 

4.756 

4-797 

4.838 

4.870 

4.92 

4.1 

4.2 

4.62 

4.662 

4.704 

4.740 

4.78S 

4-830 

4.872 

4.914 

4-956 

4  998 

5  04 

4.2 

4-3 

4-73 

4  773 

4.8(6 

4.850 

4.902 

4-945 

4.988 

5.03' 

5.074 

5.117 

5.16 

4  3 

4-4 

4.84 

4.884 

4.928 

4.972 

5.016 

5.06a 

5-104 

5.148 

5.192 

5.236 

5.28 

4-4 

4-5 

4-95 

4.995 

5.040 

5.085 

5.130 

5.^75 

5.220 

5.265 

5.310 

5.355 

5.40 

4-5 

4  ^ 

5-o6 

5.106 

5-152 

5. .98 

5.244 

5.290 

5.336 

5-382 

S-428 

5-474 

5-52 

4.6 

4  7 

5-17 

5-217 

5  264 

5-311 

5.358 

5.405 

5.452 

5.499 

5.546 

5.593 

5.64 

47 

4.8 

5.28 

5-328 

5.376 

5.424 

5.472 

5-520 

5-56S 

5.616 

5.664 

5.712 

5.76 

48 

4.9 

5-39 

5-439 

5.488 

5.537 

5 -586 

5.635 

5-684 

5.733 

5.782 

5-831 

5.88 

4.9 

50 

5-50 

5-550 

5.600 

5  650 

5-700 

5.750 

5  800 

5.850 

5.900 

5.950 

6.00 

5.0 

5-1 

5.61 

5-66X 

5-712 

5  ■  763 

5814 

5.865 

5.916 

5-967 

6.018  6. o6q 

6.12 

5-1 

5-2 

5-72 

5.772 

6.824 

5.876 

5.928 

5.980 

6.C32 

6.084 

6  1366.188 

6.24 

5-2 

5-3 

5-83 

5.883 

5.9.36 

5.986 

6.042 

0.095 

6.148 

6.201 

6.25416.307 

^■3^ 

5.3 

5.4 

5-94 

5-994 

6.048 

6.102 

6.156 

6.210 

6  264 

6  318 

6.372  6.426 

6.48 

5-4 

5-5 

6.0s 

6.105 

6.160 

6.215 

6-270 

6.325 

6.380 

6.435 

6.490  6.545 

6.60 

5-5 

5-6 

6.16 

6.2.6 

6  272 

6.328 

6.384 

6.440 

6.496 

6.552 

6.608  6  664 

:6.72 

5.6 

5-7 

6.27 

6.327 

6.384 

6.44t 

6  498 

7-555 

6  612 

6.669 

6.726,6.782 

6  84 

^■l 

5-8 

6  38 

6.438 

6  4g6 

6.354 

6.612 

6.670 

6  728 

6.786 

6.844^6.902 

6.96 

5-8 

5-9 

16.49 

0.549 

6. 60S 

6.667 

1  6.726 

6.785 

6.844 

6 .  903 

6.962,7.021 

7.08 

5-9 

6.0 

I6.60 

6.660 

6.720 

1   6.780 

1  6.840 

6.900 

6.96c 

7.020I7.080I7.140 

7.20 

6.0 

CHEESE. 


309 


TABLE    SHOWING   AVERAGE   PER  CENT  OF  FAT 
IN    MILK.      (Partly  after  Martiny.) 


Sum  of 


24 
28 
32 

36 

12.40 
44 
48 
52 
56 

12.60 
64 
68 


8.70 
73 
76 

79 
82 

8.85 
88 
91 
94 
97 

9.00 

03 
06 

09 


9.15 


24 

27 

9-30 
33 
36 
39 
42 

9-45 
48 
51 
54 
57 

9.60 
63 
66 
69 
72 

9-75 
78 


2.90 

91 
92 

93 
94 

2.95 

96 
97 
98 
99 

3  00 


03 
04 

3.O0' 

061 

07 
08 1 

OQ 

I 

3.10 


3.20 


Sum  of 


16.50 

55 
60 

65 
70 

16.75 
80 
85 
90 
95 

17.00 

05 
10 
15 
20 

17.25 
30 
35 
40 

45 

17-50 
55 
60 
65 
70 

17-75 
80 
85 
90 
95 


[3.20 
24 


13.40 
44 
48 
52 
56 

13.60 
64 
68 


^  4° 


9.90 
93 
96 

99 
10.02 


10.05 
08 


[3.80  10.35 
84!   38 
41 


4.00  10.50 


16 


14.20  10.65 

24!  68 
28  71 
32  74 
36    77 

14.40  10.80 


92 


3.30 

3 
32 
33 
34 


36 
37 
38 
39 

3.40 

41 
42 
43 
44 

3  45 

46 
47 
48 
49 

3.50 

51 
52 

53 

54 

3.55 

56 
57 

58 
59 

3.60 

61 
62 
63 
64 


4.60  10.95  3.65 
64}   98   66 
67 
68 
69 


11.01 
04 
07 


Sum  of 

U    cB 

tn 

«■ 

M 

^t 

UJ 

w 

^ 

^ 

>o 

^ 

m 

18.50 

14.80 

11. 10 

3.70 

55 

84 

13 

71 

60 

88 

16 

72 

65 

92 

19 

73 

70 

96 

22 

74 

18.75 

15.00 

ir.25 

3.75 

80 

04 

28 

76 

85 

08 

31 

77 

90 

12 

34 

78 

95 

16 

37 

7y 

19.00 

15.20 

11.40 

3.80 

OS 

24 

43 

81 

10 

28 

46 

82 

15 

32 

49 

83 

20 

36 

52 

84 

19.25 

15.40 

11-55 

3.85 

30 

44 

58 

86 

35 

48 

61 

87 

40 

52 

64 

88 

45 

56 

67 

89 

19-50 

15.60 

11  70 

3.90 

55 

64 

73 

91 

60 

68 

76 

92 

65 

72 

79 

93 

70 

76 

82 

94 

19-75 

15.80 

11.85 

3.95 

80 

84 

88 

96 

85 

88 

yi 

97 

90 

92 

94 

.98 

95 

96 

97 

99 

20.00 

16.00 

12.00 

4.00 

05 

04 

03 

01 

10 

08 

06 

02 

15 

12 

09 

03 

20 

16 

12 

04 

20.25 

16.20 

12.15 

4.05 

30 

24 

]8 

06 

35 

28 

21 

°l 

40 

32 

24 

08 

45 

36 

27 

09 

310 


DAIRYING. 


TABLE  SHOWING   AVERAGE   PER    CEXT  OF  PAT 

IN   MILiK.—{Coniinue(/.) 


Sum  of 


I 
16.40  12.30 
44        33 
48        36 

52,  39 
56        42 

16.6012.45 

641  48 
68,  51 
72'       54 

76|       57 

16.80  12.60 
84!        63 

881  66 
92!  69 
96;       72 


17.00  12.75 


16 


17. 20  12. go 
24        93 

96 
99 


17.40 
44 
48 

52 
56 

17.60 
64 
68 

72 
76 


4.10 


13 
14 

4  15 

16 
17 
18 

19 

4.20 


26 


3  02 


13.05  4.35 

08 1      36 


[3.20  4.40 


t3-35i4.45 
38!       46 

41 1       47 

44         4^ 


47 


49 


Sa:n  of 


22.50 
55 
60 
6, 
70 

22.75 
80 
85 
90 
95 

23.00 
05 


23.=5 
30 
35 
40 

45 

23.50 

55 
60 
65 
70 

23-75 
80 

85 
90 
95 

24.00 
05 


id 

i:^t 

H 

^'r 

"* 

18.00 

13.50  4.50 

04 

53   51 

08 

561   52 

12 

59,   53 

16 

62    54 

18.20 

13  65  4.55 

24 

68   56 

28 

71 1   57 

32 

74!   58 

36 

77  i   59 

18.40 

13.80  4.60 

44 

83   61 

48 

86 1   62 

52 

89   63 

56 

92'   64 

1 

18.60 

13.95  4.65 

64 

98   66 

68 

14.011   67 

72 

04'   68 

76 

07   69 

18.80 

14.10  4.70 

84 

13   71 

88 

16   72 

92 

19  i   73 

96 

22    74 

19.00 

14.25  4.75 

04 

28   76 

08 

31  j   77 

12 

34   78 

16 

37,   79 

19.20 

14.40  4.80 

24 

43   81 

28 

46   82 

32 

49    83 

36 

52,   84 

19.40 

i4.5s'4.S5 

44 

58   86 

4S 

61   87 

52 

64    88 

.    36 

67    89 

Sum  of 


24.50 

55 
60 
65 
70 

24.75 
80 
85 
90 
95 

25.00 
05 


20 

25.25 
30 
35 
40 

45 

25.50 
55 
60 
65 
70 

25.75 
80 
85 
90 
95 

26.00 
05 


26.25 
30 
35 
40 


19.60 
64 
68 
72 
76 

19.80 


92 

96 

20.00 
04 
08 


20.20 
24 

28 
32 
36 

20.40 
44 
48 

52 
56 

20.60 
64 
68 
72 
76 

20.80 
84 


4.70 
73 
76 
79 
82 

4.85 


91 
94 
97 

5.00 
03 
06 


15.15 
18 
21 
24 

27 

15-30 
33 
36 
39 
42 

15.45 
48 
51 
54 

57 

15.60 
63 
66 
69 
72 

15.75 
78 


4.90 

91 
92 

93 
94 

4.95 

96 
97 


5  00 


03 
04 

5.05 

06 

07 


10 


5.15 

16 

17 
18 
19 

5. '20 


CREAMERIES  AiTD   CHEESE   FACTORIES.  311 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    PATRONS     OF     CHEESE    FAC- 
TORIES    AND    CREAMERIES.      (Curtis.) 

Care  of  Milk. 

1.  All  milk  for  the  cheese  factory  must  be  clean,  pure, 
and  wholesome,  or  the  cheese  will  be  bad.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  bad  milk  will  injure  10,000  pounds  of  good  milk. 

2.  The  law  is  very  strict  against  watering  or  skimming. 
A  fine  of  $10.00  to  $100.00  is  imposed  if  convicted. 

3.  After  a  cow  has  dropped  her  calf,  the  milk  should  not 
be  taken  to  the  factory  until  the  tenth  milking. 

4.  Milk  run  through  an  aerator  as  soon  as  drawn  from 
the  cow,  in  open  air,  is  better  for  cheese  and  butter  making 
than  when  set  in  a  tub  of  water  and  dipped.  By  any  means 
at  your  command  thoroughly  air  the  milk  until  cooled. 

5.  Stagnant  water,  dead  carcasses,  or  filth  of  any  kind  in 
the  pasture  or  barn-yard  produces  tainted  milk.  For  this 
reason  set  the  can  of  night's  milk  in  a  clean  place. 

6.  Milk  with  clean  hands  ;  never  wet  them  with  milk;  it 
is  positively  filthy. 

7.  See  that  the  cow's  udder  is  brushed  clean  and  free 
from  fine  dirt  and  dust  before  milking. 

8.  Never  mix  the  night's  and  morning's  milk.  It  will 
many  times  sour  them  both  by  pouring  the  warm  milk  into 
the  cold. 

9.  Small  cans  (10  to  15  gallons)  are  much  preferred  to 
larger  ones,  as  the  milk  is  kept  in  a  better  condition. 

10.  Whey  should  be  taken  home  in  separate  cans  from 
that  in  which  the  milk  is  brought  in. 

11.  If  whey  is  taken  home  in  the  milk-cans,  empty  at 
once,  wash  with  tepid  water,  then  scald  and  turn  them  out 
to  the  sun. 

12.  Insist  that  the  cheese-maker  keep  the  whey-vat  clean, 
by  washing  and  scalding  at  least  twice  a  week. 

13.  Insist  that  your  factory  shall  take  in  milk  by  the 
Babcock  test,  paying  each  patron  according  to  what  he  de^ 
livers. 

14.  Use  a  Babcock  test  yourself  and  know  just  what  you 
produce;  turn  off  the   poor  cows  and  fill  their  places  with 


313  nAIIlVlN^. 

good  ones.  Every  patron  should  know  for  himself  whether 
he  is  boarding  unprofitable  cows.  There  is  no  better  way 
of  knowing  this  than  by  the  use  of  the  Babcock  test  at  the 
barn.  The  cost  of  the  test  is  but  little,  but  its  instruction 
is  very  valuable. 

15.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that  pure  milk  can 
only  be  had  through  healthy  cows,  pure  feed,  pure  water, 
pure  air,  and  cleanly  handling.  Every  patron  is  affected 
in  the  cash  outcome  by  the  way  his  brother  patrons  pro- 
duce and  handle  their  milk,  hence  the  necessity  of  each 
adhering  to  sound  rules  based  on  sound  dairy  sense.  There 
is  not  a  first-class  factory  in  the  land  where  good  prices  are 
obtained  for  cheese  but  what  the  patrons  practise  thorough 
cleanliness  in  the  care  of  milk.  Remember,  it  is  a  matter 
of  profit  to  each  to  do  this. 

Care  of  Cows. 

Pay  special  attention  to  the  comfort  of  your  cows.  Do 
not  let  them  remain  out  in  cold  rain-stormiS  ;  it  will  reduce 
the  flow  of  milk.  Feed  liberally.  The  cow  must  at  all 
times  have  all  the  good  feed  she  can  eat  and  digest.  Be 
sure  and  provide  some  soiling-crop  against  the  July  and 
August  drought;  if  the  cow  shrinks  then  you  will  lose  money 
in  the  fall,  when  butter  and  cheese  are  high.  Oats  and 
peas,  sweet  corn  or  field  corn,  drilled  3^  feet  apart,  are  a 
good  soiling-crop. 

A  silo  is  a  great  help  in  the  economical  production  of 
cow  feed.  Thousands  of  successful  dairymen  have  proved 
this.     It  is  no  longer  an  experiment. 

Dairy  farming  at  high  profit  calls  for  close  study  con- 
cerning the  cow,  concerning  her  feed,  and  how  to  produce 
it  at  the  best  and  cheapest.  Every  dairy  neighborhood 
will  show  men  who  make  nearly  double  the  profit  from  the 
business  that  others  do.  We  believe  that  it  will  pay  every 
man  to  be  intelligent  and  as  well  posted  as  he  can  be  on  these 
important  questions.  We  must  bring  up  the  grade  of  our 
reputation  by  making  better  butter  and  cheese.  This  will 
bring  on  a  larger  and  better  paying  demand.     To  cheat  the 


CHEAMERIES  AKD   CHEESE   FACTOraES.  313 

consumer  with  poor  goods  will,  in  the  end,  destroy  the 
business.  Better  dairymen,  better  milk,  better  products, 
better  reputation  in  the  world's  markets,  will  surely  bring 
better  profits,  and  is  the  only  true  road  to  Dairy  Success. 

BY-LAWS   AND   RULES   FOR   CO-OPERATIVE 
CREA3IERY   ASSOCIATIONS. 

I.  This  association  shall  be  known  as  the Co- 
operative Creamery  Association. 

II.  The  purpose  of  the  association  shall  be  to  locate, 
establish  and  carry  on  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  milk 
products,  in  such  a  manner  as  will  conduce  to  the  greatest 
convenience  and  profit  of  the  producers  over  the  greatest 

amount  of  territory  in  the  town  of and  vicinity.     Also 

to  purchase,  use,  and  hold  real  and  personal  estate  neces- 
sary for  the  transaction  of  the  business  of  the  association. 

III.  The  capital  stock  of  the  association  shall  be 

dollars,  divided  into shares  of  ten  dollars  each. 

IV.  This  association  shall  be  co-operative.  Cream  and 
milk  may  be  purchased  or  accepted  from  any  person  not  a 
stockholder  on  the  same  terms  and  conditions  as  may  be 
prescribed  for  stockholders. 

V.  Any  person  directly  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits 
may  become  a  member  of  this  association  by  taking  one  or 
more  shares  of  the  stock  of  the  association. 

VI.  I.  The  regular  meetings  of  the  association  shall  be 

held  semi-annually,  viz.,  on  the  first  Mondays  in and 

in  each  year,  at  such  time  and  place  as  the  board 

of  directors  may  determine;  and  notice  of  such  meeting 
shall  be  given  by  the  clerk  to  each  member  by  mail  seven 
days  at  least  previous  to  the  date  of  said  meeting.  2. 
Special  meetings  may  be  called  either  by  the  president, 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  a  majority  of  the  directors, 
or  upon  written  request  of  one  third  of  the  stockholders  of; 
the  association,  upon  seven  days'  notice  as  above.  3., 
Meetings  of  the  board  of  directors  may  be  called  by  the 
president  or  by  any  two  directors. 

VII.  I.   The  officers  of  the  association  shall  consist  of  a. 
president,  clerk,  treasurer,  five  directors,  and  two  auditors. 
2.  The  president  shall  be  chosen  annually  by  the  board  of; 


314  DAIKYTXQ. 

directors,  by  written  ballot,  at  the  regular  meeting  In 
October.  3.  The  clerk,  treasurer,  board  of  directors,  and 
auditors  shall  be  chosen  by  the  stockholders  annually,  by 
written  ballot,  at  the  regular  meeting  in  October,  and  all 
officers  shall  hold  office  till  others  are  chosen  and  qualified 
in  their  stead.  Vacancies  in  the  above-named  offices  may 
be  filled  at  any  meeting  of  the  stockholders  ;  in  the  mean- 
time by  the  board  of  directors.  In  case  of  the  absence  of 
the  clerk  a  temporary  clerk  may  be  chosen  and  qualified 
in  his  stead. 

VIII.  At  any  regularly  called  meeting  of  the  association. 
nine  of  the  members  thereof,  and  at  any  meeting  of  the 
board  of  directors,  three  members  thereof,  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business.  A  less  number 
may  adjourn  from  time  to  time. 

IX.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president,  who  shall  be  a 
director,  to  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  association  and  of 
the  board  of  directors,  preserve  order  therein,  put  all  ques- 
tions, announce  all  decisions,  and,  in  case  of  an  equal  divi- 
sion, to  give  the  casting  vote.  He  shall  receive  and  safely 
preserve  all  bonds  required  of  the  officers  of  the  associa- 
tion and  sign  all  certificates  or  documents  issued  by  the 
association  or  board  of  directors.  In  the  absence  of  the 
president,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  one  of  the  board  of  direc- 
tors, in  order  of  their  seniority,  to  preside  at  any  meeting. 

X.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  clerk  to  attend  all  meet- 
ings of  the  association  and  of  the  board  of  directors,  and 
to  keep  a  correct  record  of  the  same,  which  record  shall  be 
open  for  the  inspection  of  any  member.  He  shall  give 
notice  of  all  meetings  and  of  all  appointments  on  commit- 
tees, to  each  member  thereof,  and  to  each  officer  chosen,  of 
his  election;  and  shall  serve  all  such  other  notices  as  ap- 
pertain to  his  office  or  as  may  be  directed  from  time  to  time 
by  the  association  or  board  of  directors.  He  shall  attest 
all  certificates  or  documents  issued  signed  by  the  president, 
shall  file  all  bills  and  reports  and  such  other  documents  as 
may  be  ordered  to  be  filed,  and  shall  carry  on  all  such 
correspondence  as  may  be  directed  ;  shall  act  as  secretary 
of  all  committees  when  called  upon;    shall  keep  a  correct 


CREA^IERIES    AXD    rHEESE    FACTORIES.  315 

financial  account  between  the  association  and  its  members, 
and  shall  have  charge  of  all  property  not  otherwise  disposed 
of.  He  shall  give  such  bonds  for  the  faithful  performance 
of  his  duty,  and  receive  such  compensation  for  his  services, 
as  the  board  of  directors  may  determine. 

XI.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  receive  all 
money  belonging  to  the  association,  giving  his  receipt 
therefor.  He  shall  draw  all  money  for  the  payment  of 
claims  against  the  association  under  the  direction  of  the 
board  of  directors.  He  shall  make  a  report  to  the  board  of 
directors  at  such  times  as  they  may  require.  He  shall  per- 
form all  duties  required  of  him  by  the  laws  of  the  common- 
wealth and  shall  give  such  bonds  for  the  faithful  perform- 
ance of  his  duty  as  the  board  of  directors  may  require. 

XII.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  directors  to 
attend  to  the  general  affairs  of  the  association,  invest  the 
funds  of  the  same,  appoint  such  other  agents  and  officers 
as  in  their  judgment  the  interests  of  the  association  require, 
and  fix  all  compensations.  They  shall  keep  or  cause  to  be 
kept  a  correct  account  of  all  cream  or  milk  furnished  by 
the  stockholders  or  patrons,  and  a  correct  account  of  all 
sales.  They  shall  prescribe  the  rules  and  regulations 
governing  the  collection  and  delivery  of  the  cream  and 
milk;  may  cause  the  quality  of  the  same  to  be  tested  as 
often  as  may  be  deemed  expedient;  may  authorize  the  prem- 
ises of  any  stockholder  or  patron  to  be  inspected,  and 
may  reject  and  refuse  to  collect  or  receive  any  cream  or 
milk  that  is  unsatisfactory  or  not  furnished  in  compliance 
with  the  prescribed  regulations.  They  shall  establish 
prices  and  have  full  power  over  the  business  of  the  associa- 
tion, and  shall  in  all  cases  pursue  such  measures  as  in  their 
judgment  will  tend  to  the  best  interests  of  the  association. 
They  shall  make  a  full  report  of  their  doings,  and  a  full 
statement  of  the  business  at  each  regular  meeting,  or 
whenever  called  upon  to  do  so  by  vote  of  the  stockholders. 

XIII.  The  duties  of  the  auditors  shall  be  to  audit  all 
accounts  of  the  association,  making  a  report  to  the  board 
of  directors  at  the  time  of  the  regular  meetings,  and  at  such 
other  times  as  they  may  require. 


316  DAIUMNG. 

XIV.  The  net  profits  of  the  business  of  the  association, 
after  such  deductions  have  been  made  as  the  laws  of  the 
commonwealth  require,  shall  be  divided  J>ro  rata  among  the 
stockholders,  according  to  the  number  of  shares  held  by 
each.  [JVoie. — It  is  understood  that  the  profits  shall  not 
exceed  6  per  cent  on  capital,  all  receipts  in  excess  of  this 
sum  and  necessary  reserves  being  declared  in  payment  to 
patrons  for  cream  or  milk  furnished,] 

XV.  I,  Any  person  doing  business  for  the  association  or 
incurring  expense  therefor  shall  receive  a  just  remunera- 
tion for  such  services  or  expense.  2,  All  documents  issued 
by  the  association  shall  bear  the  seal  thereof,  said  seal  to 
be  in  charge  of  the  clerk,  3,  The  directors  shall  procure 
a  corporate  seal,  4,  No  member  of  the  association  can 
transfer  his  stock  to  any  person  not  directly  engaged  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  5,  In  case  shares  are  transferred  by 
one  person  to  another,  the  certificate  thereof  must  be  sur- 
rendered to  the  treasurer,  and  the  board  of  directors  shall 
cause  another  certificate  to  be  issued  to  the  person  to  whom 
the  transfer  is  made. 

XVI.  These  by-laws  shall  not  be  altered  or  amended  unless 
such  alteration  or  amendment  be  proposed  in  writing  one 
meeting  previous  to  action  being  taken  ;  provided  also  that 
two  thirds  of  the  members  vote  in  the  affirmative. 

BY-LAAVS    AND    RULES    FOR    CO-OPERATIVE 
CHEESE    FACTORIES. 

Article  i.  This  association  shall  be  known  as  the  —  —  — 
Cheese  Factory  Association. 

Art.  2.  There  shall  be  two  meetings  held  yearly  at  the 
factory — one  in  the  spring  and  one  in  the  fall  or  winter,  to  be 
called  by  the  president. 

Art,  3,  At  the  first  meeting  in  each  year  there  shall  be 
chosen  by  the  patrons  a  president  and  a  treasurer  and  sales- 
man. 

Art,  4,  The  salesman  and  treasurer  shall  sell  all  the  cheese, 
and  as  soon  as  he  shall  have  sold  and  collected  for  one  month's 
make  of  cheese,  he  shall,  after  paying  the  proprietor  for  mak- 


CREAMEUIES    AXD    CHEESE    FACTORIES.  317 

ing  and  deducting  the  other  expenses,  divide  the  proceeds  pro 
rata,  according  to  the  amount  of  butter-fat  delivered  by  each 
patron,  as  determined  by  the  Babcock  test. 

Art.  5.  It  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  and  sales- 
man to  keep  the  books  of  the  association,  and  make  final  divi- 
dend yearly  to  all  the  patrons  whenever  all  the  cheese  is  sold 
and  paid  for.  He  shall  also  keep  a  milk  book,  showing  the 
number  and  amount  of  cheese  made  each  month,  to  be  taken 
from  the  factory's  books.  Said  treasurer's  milk  and  cheese 
books  shall  be  subject  to  the  inspection  of  the  patrons  and  the 
president. 

Art.  6.  The  manager  shall  keep  an  accurate  account  with 
each  patron  of  the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  delivered  each 
day  and  make  and  record  daily  (every  week  or  month)  tests  of 
same  to  show  its  fat  content;  also  an  account  of  the  number  and 
amount  of  cheese  made,  which  accounts  shall  be  subject  to  the 
inspection  of  the  officers  and  patrons. 

Art.  7.  The  president  shall  be  authorized  to  preside  over 
the  entire  transactions  of  patrons  or  officers,  and  constitute  a 
committee  to  investigate  all  matters  pertaining  to  said  factory, 
and  if  any  contingency  should  arise,  he  shall  be  authorized  to 
bring  suit  in  law  against  any  delinquent. 

Art.  8.  The  manager  (cheese-maker)  shall  be  authorized  to 
criticise  all  milk  offered,  and  he  shall  reject  the  same  if  in  his 
judgment  said  milk  is  unfit  to  run  into  cheese;  also  to  deter- 
mine the  fat  content  of  any  milk,  and  if  found  to  be  below  the 
legal  standard  of  the  State,  shall  report  the  same  to  the  presi- 
dent, whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  send  out  a  committee  of  three  to 
the  premises  of  said  delinquent,  witnessing  the  transit  of  the 
milk  on  the  ensuing  day  from  the  cow  to  the  factory,  which 
shall  again  be  tested  as  on  the  previous  day,  and  if  found  to 
vary,  the  party  in  question  shall  be  adjudged  guilty  of  having 
diluted  or  adulterated  the  same,  as  shall  appear,  and  shall  forfeit 
and  pay  to  the  association  as  liquidated  damages  the  sum  of 
twenty-five  dollars  for  each  and  every  day  such  dilution  shall 
occur. 

Art.  9.  The  president  shall  also  have  power  to  call  special 
meetings  of  the  patrons  at  any  time  he  may  deem  it  necessary, 
^nd  he  shall  be  required  to  call  a  meeting  of  the  patrons  when 


318  DAIRYING. 

ever  a  request  is  presented  to  him  signed  by  ten  patrons. 
Whenever  a  meeting  is  to  be  called,  the  president  shall  give 
patrons  at  least  two  days'  notice. 

Art.  io.  The  action  of  the  treasurer  and  salesman  in  regard 
to  selling  or  holding  cheese  shall  be  governed  by  a  vote  of  a 
majority  of  the  patrons.  If  no  vote  is  taken,  he  is  to  exercise 
his  best  judgment  in  the  matter. 

Art.  II.  In  voting  at  any  annual  or  special  meeting  of  this 
association  the  patrons  shall  be  allowed  one  vote  for  every  cow 
the  milk  of  which  is  brought  to  the  factory.  [This  may  be 
altered  to  one  vote  on  each  share  of  the  capital  stock  or  one 
vote  to  each  shareholder.] 

Art.  12.  The  treasurer  and  salesman  shall  attend  all  meet- 
ings of  the  association  whenever  possible,  and  shall  take  min- 
utes of  the  proceedings,  and  place  the  same  on  file  in  his  office, 
and  in  other  respects  act  as  secretary.  In  case  he  should  be 
absent,  a  temporary  secretary  may  be  chosen.  In  case  the 
president  is  absent  at  any  meeting,  a  temporary  president  may 
be  chosen  for  a  presiding  officer. 

RULES   FOR   PATRONS   AND    INSTRUCTIONS   TO 
CREAM   OR   MILK   GATHERERS. 

These  rules  may  be  made  to  ?pply  to  either  whole-milk  or  gathered- 
cream  creameries. 

Feeding. — We  insist  upon  only  such  food  being  fed  to  cows 
as  will  produce  the  largest  and  best  quality  of  milk  or  cream. 
Turnips,  onions,  cabbage,  or  anything  likely  to  injure  the 
quality  of  milk,  cream,  or  butter  is  prohibited. 

Milking. — Cows  must  be  carefully  cleaned  before  milking, 
to  avoid  odors  that  taint  the  milk.  The  milk  must  be  strained 
through  two  strainers — one  of  them  cloth — before  going  into 
the  cans.  Thorough  cleanliness  must  be  observed  in  every- 
thing. 

Creamers  and  Cans. — Creamers  must  be  kept  in  a  place  free 
from  odors,  and  cleanliness  maintained  in  their  vicinity.  Tanks 
and  cans  must  be  kept  sweet  and  clean,  and  the  water  free  and 
clear.  Cans  must  be  luashed,  then  scalded  every  time  they  are 
used.  The  water  in  the  creamers  should  not  go  below  45  de- 
jfrees  in  summer  and  40  degrees  in  winter, 


CREAMERIES   AND    CHEESE   FACTORIES.  'ol9 

Settinj::^  Milk. — All  cans  must  be  filled  full  of  fresh  milk,  so 
far  as  possible,  and  immediately  placed  in  the  tank.  After  cans 
are  set  in  water  they  must  not  be  disturbed.  Patrons  are  not 
allowed  to  draw  off  the  milk  except  on  Sundays,  or  with  per- 
mission from  the  trustees. 

Mixing  Milk. — Cans  must  not  be  partly  filled  at  one  milking 
and  after  standing  long  enough  for  the  cream  to  begin  to  sepa- 
rate be  filled  with  milk  from  another  milking,  or  with  anything 
whatever.  After  a  can  has  once  been  set  it  must  not  in  any 
way  be  disturbed  or  meddled  with,  nor  the  milk  drawn  off  by 
the    patrons,   except  on  Sunday. 

Night's  Milk. — When  milk  is  delivered  but  once  each  day, 
the  cans  containing  the  night's  milk  must  be  set  in  cold  water 
immediately  after  milking  and  the  milk  thoroughly  stirred  by 
using  a  dipper  and  pouring  until  the  milk  is  thoroughly  cooled. 
A  better  plan  is  to  use  a  cooler  to  thoroughly  cool  and  aerate 
the  milk  before  it  is  put  in  the  cans.  The  night's  milk  must  be 
left  setting  in  cold  water  until  it  is  hauled  to  the  creamery. 

Cream  and  Milk  Gatherers. — Cream  and  milk  gatherers  are 
forbidden  to  take  any  cream  or  milk  which  is  dirty,  or  for  any 
reason,  in  their  judgment,  is  not  of  satisfactory  quality  or  con- 
dition, or  which  has  been  in  any  way  so  treated  as  to  indicate 
that  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  interfere  with  the  proper  and 
natural  separation  of  the  cream,  or  of  its  being  correctly  counted 
on  the  gauge,  or  in  violation  of  these  rules. 

Any  patron  found  neglecting  or  violating  any  of  these  rules 
must  at  once  be  reported  to  some  one  of  the  board  of  trustees 
or  directors,  and  his  cream  or  milk  must  not  again  be  taken  till 
he  has  satisfied  the  trustees  that  his  neglect  was,  for  good  rea- 
sons, excusable  ;  and  if  any  patron  shall  more  than  once  be  so 
reported  it  shall  be  deemed  a  sufficient  reason  for  refusal  to 
again  receive  his  cream  at  all. 

Cream  or  milk  gatherers  are  especially  directed  to  take  all 
possible  pains  to  discover  all  violations  or  neglect  of  any  of 
these  rules,  and  strictly  enforce  them  in  every  case. 

These  rules  and  instructions  are  found  by  experience  and 
observation  to  be  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  association 
and  the  best  good  of  all  its  members.  Copies  thereof  will  be 
securely  posted  conveniently  near  each  tank  where  milk  cans 
are  set,  so  that  ignorance  can  be  no  excuse  for  neglect. 


320  DAIRYING. 

Patrons  are  requested  to  notify  the  board  of  trustees  or  direc- 
tors if  any  cream  or  milk  gatherer  is  in  any  way  delinquent  or 
careless  in  his  observance  of  these  instructions. 

Patrons  who  are  not  disposed  to  be  governed  by  these  rules 
are  requested  to  so  advise  the  trustees  or  directors,  and  the 
treasurer  will  make  prompt  settlement  with  any  who  wish  to 
withdraw. 

By  order  of  the  trustees  or  directors. 

,  President. 

• o...,  Treas. 


PART  III.    GENERAL  TOPICS. 


I.   CONSTITUTIONS    OF    AGRICULTURAL 
ASSOCIATIONS. 

CONSTITUTION  AND  BY  LAWS  OF  AGRICULTURAL 
CLUBS. 

Together  With  Rules  of  Order,  and  Order  of  Business. 

(McKerkow.) 

Constitution. 

Preamble. — We,  the  undersigned,  interested  in  agricul- 
ture and  horticulture,  and  desirous  to  secure  the  benefits  to 
be  derived  from  organization,  for  the  purpose  of  practical 
discussion  and  the  promotion  of  the  common  interests 
of  our  pursuits,  do  subscribe  the  following  Constitution: 

Article  I.  Name. — This  association  shall  be  styled  and 
known  as  the Agricultural  Club. 

Article  II.  Objects. — The  objects  of  this  club  are  to  ad- 
vance the  knowledge  and  promote  the  general  interests  of 
agriculture  and  horticulture  in  this  community. 

Article  III.  Officers.  —  The  officers  shall  consist  of  a 
president,  vice-president,  recording  secretary,  correspond- 
ing secretary,  treasurer,  and  librarian. 

Article  IV.  Duties  of  Officers. — Section  i.  It  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  president  to  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the 
club;  to  enforce  a  due  observance  of  the  Constitution,  By- 
laws, and  Rules  of  Order;  to  assign  topics  of  discussion  at 
the  suggestion  of  members.  He  shall  neither  make  nor 
second  any  motion,  but  shall  have  the  privilege  of  taking 
part  in  debate;  and  while  he  has  the  floor  the  meeting  for 
the  time  being  shall  be  in  charge  of  the  vice-president; 
but  the  president  shall  have  no  vote  unless  the  club  shall 
be  equally  divided. 

Section  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  vice-president  to 
preside  at  all  times  when  the  president  is  absent,  and  while 
he  shall  have  temporarily  vacated  the  chair. 


322  GENEIIAL   TOPICS. 

Section  3.  The  recording  secretarj^  shall  keep  a  record 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  club;  also  the  name  of  each 
member,  and  shall  on  the  regular  last  meeting  of  each  year 
prepare  and  read  the  names  of  all  members;  and  he  shall 
have  charge  of  the  archives  of  the  club. 

Section  4.  The  corresponding  secretary  shall  conduct 
the  correspondence  of  the  club  and  act  as  recording  secre- 
tary in  the  absence  of  that  officer.  He  shall  also  render 
such  assistance  to  the  recording  secretary  as  that  officer 
may  require  in  the  performance  of  his  duties. 

Section  5.  The  treasurer  shall  keep  all  money  belong- 
ing to  the  club,  and  disburse  the  same  under  the  direction 
of  the  club,  according  to  its  laws.  He  shall  collect  all  fees 
and  dues  of  members,  and  shall  at  some  time  during  the 
month  of  December  of  each  year  notify  such  as  are  in 
arrears  and  request  their  dues.  He  shall  keep  a  correct 
account  of  all  moneys  received  and  expended. 

Section  6.  The  librarian  shall  have  charge  of  the  li- 
brary and  its  appurtenances,  regulating  the  use  of  the  same 
by  the  members,  according  to  the  rules  and  regulations 
prescribed.  He  shall  make  a  written  report  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  library  at  the  annual  meeting,  and  at  such 
other  times  as  the  club  may  direct.  He  shall,  within  one 
week,  deliver  to  his  successor  in  office  the  library  and  its 
appurtenances,  and  all  books,  papers,  and  documents  in 
his  possession  belonging  to  the  club. 

Article  V.  Elections. — All  elections  for  officers  shall  be 
by  ballot,  and  shall  be  held  at  the  first  regular  meeting  in 
January  of  each  year;  and  their  terms  shall  commence  im- 
mediately after  their  election,  to  continue  for  one  year,  or 
until  others  are  elected  to  fill  their  places.  In  the  case  of 
vacancy  occurring  in  any  office  the  club  shall  go  imme- 
diately into  an  election  to  fill  the  same.  A  majority  of  all 
the  votes  cast  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

Article  VI.  Metnbership. — Section  i.  Any  person  inter- 
ested in  agriculture  or  horticulture,  and  of  good  moral 
standing,  may  become  a  member  of  this  club  by  signing 
this  Constitution,  agreeing  to  support  all  laws  and  regula- 
tions made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  paying  fifty  cents 
annually  into  the  treasury. 

Section   2.    Honorary   membership   may   be   conferred  in 


CONSTITUTIONS  OF  AGltJCULTL'UAL    ASSOCIATIONS.  3?3 

consideration  of  eminent  character  and  services  in  honor 
of  agriculture  or  horticulture  and  shall  be  conferred  with- 
out fee  or  dues.  The  recipient  shall  not  be  entitled  to 
hold  office,  but  may  take  part  in  all  discussions  and  vote 
on  all  questions. 

Article  VII.  Amendments. — No  alteration,  amendment, 
or  addition  can  be  made  to  this  Constitution,  neither  can 
any  part  of  it  be  repealed,  without  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of 
the  members  present.  Any  proposed  alteration,  amend- 
ment, addition,  or  repeal  must  be  submitted  in  w^riting, 
filed  with  the  recording  secretary,  and  read  at  two  regu- 
lar meetings  next  preceding  that  on  which  the  vote  is  taken. 

By-laws. 

Article  I.  This   club  shall  assemble  weekly  (or  twice  a 

month)    on evenings    from   November    ist    to    April 

ist,  and  at  such  intervals  thereafter  as  may  be  agreed 
upon  by  the  club,  or  appointed  by  the  president.  The 
time  and  place  of  meeting  may  be  altered  at  any  regular 
meeting  of  the  club  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  all  of  the 
members  present. 

Article  II.  Section  i.  Seven  members  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business  of  the  club.  A 
less  number  may  meet,  maintain  a  discussion  on  any  topic, 
and  adjourn  to  any  given  time. 

Section  2.  Persons  present,  not  members  of  the  club, 
may  be  invited  to  take  part  in  all  discussions  of  agricuL 
tural  topics;  but  they  shall  take  no  part  in  the  business  of 
the  club. 

Article  III.  Section  i.  If  the  funds  of  the  club  should 
at  any  time  be  exhausted,  or  inadequate  to  meet  the  de- 
mands contemplated  by  the  Constitution,  there  shall  be  an 
equal  assessment  upon  each  member  to  make  up  the  de- 
ficiency. 

Section  2.  No  appropriation  of  money  from  the  funds 
of  the  club  shall  be  lawful,  except  in  furtherance  of  the 
objects  contemplated  by  the  Constitution,  as  stated  in  ar- 
ticle 2,  or  as  especially  provided  by  these  By-laws. 

Article  IV.   Section   i.   There  shall  be  a  library  estab- 


C?4  GENERAL  TOPICS. 

lished  for  the  use  of  the  club  in  furtherance  of  the  objects 
contemplated  in  article  2  of  the  Constitution. 

Section  2.  The  library  shall  be  open  to  the  free  use  of 
the  members  of  the  club,  who  shall  not  be  more  than  three 
months  indebted  to  the  treasury,  subject  to  the  prescribed 
rules  and  regulations. 

Section  3.  The  library  shall  be  maintained  by  the  sur- 
plus fund,  after  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  club,  and 
by  the  voluntary  contributions  and  donations  of  the  mem- 
bers, to  be  duly  accredited  to  each  contributor  and  donor. 

Section  4.  The  library  shall  be  in  charge  of  the  li- 
brarian, as  provided  in  article  4,  section  6,  of  the  Consti- 
tution. There  shall  be  a  standing  library  committee  of 
three  members  appointed  at  each  annual  meeting,  of  whom 
the  librarian  shall  be  one,  and  ex-officio  chairman,  which 
shall  have  charge  of  the  purchase  and  collection  of  books, 
papers,  and  pamphlets  for  the  library,  and  perform  such 
other  duties  as  may  be  ordained. 

Section  5.  Rtdes. — Rule  i.  No  member  shall  have  from 
the  library  more  than  one  (two)  book(s)  at  a  time. 

Rule  2.  No  volume  shall  be  retained  longer  than  two 
weeks,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  ten  cents  for  the  first 
week  of  detention,  and  five  cents  for  every  week  thereafter. 

Rule  3.  There  shall  be  assessed  for  injuries  as  follows: 
ist.  For  an  injury  beyond  ordinary  wear,  an  amount  pro- 
portionate to  the  injury,  ascertained  by  the  librarian.  2d. 
For  the  loss  of  the  volume,  the  cost  of  the  book;  and  if  one 
of  a  set,  an  amount  sufficient  to  replace  it,  or  purchase  a 
new  volume. 

Rule  4.  No  person  having  incurred  a  fine  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  take  books  from  the  library  until  the  fine  is  paid. 

Article  V.  A  vote  of  two  thirds  of  all  the  members 
present  shall  be  required  to  pass  any  appropriation  of 
money  by  the  club,  other  than  for  its  necessary  contingent 
expenses. 

Article  VI.  Section  i.  Any  member  who  shall  suffer 
his  account  with  the  treasurer  to  go  unsettled  for  more 
than  one  year  shall  cease  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  club,  and  his  name  shall  be  stricken  from  the  roll  ac- 
cordingly. ,      . 


roXSTlTtlTlOXS  OF  AG  RICTLTURAL    ASS0CiAT10:NS.  325 

Section  2.  Any  member  who  shall  be  guilty  of  any  gross 
violation  of  the  rules  of  order,  or  of  profane  or  indecent 
language  or  conduct,  at  any  of  the  meetings  of  the  club 
shall  be  fined,  reprimanded,  or  expelled,  as  the  club  may, 
by  a  two  thirds  vote,  decide. 

Section  3.  Any  member  who  shall  become  guilty  of  any 
heinous  offence  or  disgraceful  practice,  such  as  to  render 
him  an  unfit  associate,  shall,  on  conviction  thereof,  be  ex- 
pelled from  the  club. 

Article  VIL  These  By-laws  may  be  amended  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Constitution. 

Stct Siding    Resolutions. 

Resolved,  That  after  this  date  the  weekly  meetings  of 
this  club  shall  be  held  on  ,  at  ,  or  at  the  resi- 
dences of  the  members  of  the  club,  at o'clock. 

Resolved,  That  there  shall  be  an  Executive  Committee, 
consisting  of  the  president,  recording  secretary,  and  treas- 
urer, having  power  to  transact  the  necessary  business 
of  the  club,  during  the  term  when  the  meetings  are  not 
held. 

Rules   of    Order. 

1.  No  question  shall  be  stated  unless  moved  by  two 
members,  nor  open  for  discussion  until  stated  by  the  presi- 
dent. 

2.  When  a  member  intends  to  speak  on  a  question,  he 
shall  rise  in  his  place  and  respectfully  address  his  remarks 
to  the  chair,  confine  his  remarks  to  the  question,  and  avoid 
personalities.  Should  more  than  one  person  rise  at  a 
time,  the  president  shall  determine  who  is  entitled  to  the 
floor. 

3.  When  a  member  is  called  to  order  by  the  president, 
or  any  other  member  he  shall  at  once  take  his  seat,  and 
every  point  of  order  shall  be  decided  by  the  president, 
without  debate,  subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  club. 

4.  In  case  of  an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chair 
the  question  shall  be  put  to  the  club  thus:  "  Shall  the  de- 
cision of  the  chair  be  sustained?"  which  shall  be  decided 
without  debate. 


326  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

5.  No  member  shall  interrupt  another  while  he  is  speak- 
ing, except  to  call  to  order. 

6.  Any  member  may  call  for  a  division  of  the  question, 
when  the  sense  will  admit  of  it. 

7.  When  any  three  members  call  for  the  yeas  and  nays, 
they  shall  be  taken  and  recorded  on  the  minutes. 

8.  All  resolutions  shall,  when  required  by  the  president 
or  any  member,  be  submitted  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the 
member  offering  the  same. 

9.  Cushing's  "  Manual  of  Parliamentary  Practice  "  shall 
be  adopted  as  authority  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  parlia- 
mentary order  in  the  club. 

10.  These  Rules  may  be  amended  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Constitution  and  By-laws. 

Order  of  Business. 

1.  Calling  the  roll  of  officers  and  necessary  filling  of 
vacancies. 

2.  Reading  of  minutes  of  last  meeting. 

3.  Reports  of  committees. 

4.  Unfinished  business. 

5.  New  business. 

6.  Reception  of  new  members. 

7.  Has  any  member  any  question  to  ask  for  information 
in  regard  to  his  farm,  stock,  etc.? 

8.  Reading  of  communications  and  essays. 

9.  Discussion  of  regular  topic. 

10.  Assignment  of  subject  for  next  discussion. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  VILLAGE-IMPROVEMENT 
SOCIETIES. 

Article  i.  This  society  shall  be  called  the  Im- 
provement Society. 

Art.  2.  The  object  of  this  society  shall  be  to  improve 
and  ornament  the  streets  and  public  grounds  of  the  village 
by  planting  and  cultivating  trees,  establishing  and  protect- 
ing grass-plats  and  borders  in  the  avenues,  and  generally 
doing  whatever  may  tend  to  the  improvement  of  the  village 
as  a  place  of  residence. 


COKSTITUTIOXS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATIONS.   327 

Art.  3.  The  business  of  the  society  shall  be  conducted 
by  a  board  of  nine  directors,  five  gentlemen  and  four 
ladies,  to  be  elected  annually  by  the  society,  who  shall 
constitute  the  board.  This  board  shall,  from  its  own 
number,  elect  one  president,  two  vice-presidents,  a  secre- 
tary, and  treasurer,  and  shall  appoint  such  committees  as 
they  may  deem  advisable  to  further  the  ends  of  the  society. 

Art.  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president,  and,  in  his 
absence,  of  the  senior  vice-president,  to  preside  at  all  meet- 
ings of  the  society,  and  to  carry  out  all  orders  of  the  board 
of  directors. 

Art.  5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  keep  a 
correct  and  careful  record  of  all  proceedings  of  the  society 
and  of  the  board  of  directors  in  a  book  suitable  for  their 
preservation,  and  such  other  duties  as  ordinarily  pertain 
to  the  office. 

Art.  6.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  keep  the 
funds  of  the  society,  and  to  make  such  disbursements  as 
may  be  ordered  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Art.  7.  No  debt  shall  be  contracted  by  the  board  of 
directors  beyond  the  amount  of  available  funds  within 
their  control  to  pay  it,  and  no  member  of  this  society  shall 
be  liable  for  any  debt  of  the  society  beyond  the  amount  of 
his  or  her  subscription. 

Art.  8.  Any  adult  person  may  become  a  member  of  this 
society  by  paying  two  dollars  ($2.00)  annually.  Any  per- 
son not  of  age  who  shall  plant  and  protect  a  tree,  under 
the  direction  of  the  board  of  directors,  or  shall  pay  the 
sum  of  $1.00  annually,  may  become  a  member  of  this 
society  until  of  age,  after  which  time  the  annual  dues 
shall  be  increased  to  two  dollars  ($2.00),  the  same  as  other 
adults. 

Art.  9.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  society  shall  be  held 
during  the  first  week  in  October  at  such  place  as  the  board 
of  directors  may  select,  and  a  notice  of  such  meeting  shall 
be  posted  in  prominent  places  through  the  village.  Other 
meetings  of  the  society  may  be  called  by  the  board  of 
directors  when  desirable. 

Art.   10.   At  the  annual  meeting  the  board  of  directors 


o'^S  GEKKIiAL   Tories. 

shall  report  the  amount  of  money  received  during  the  year 
and  the  source  from  which  it  has  been  received;  the  amount 
of  money  expended  during  the  year,  and  the  objects  for 
which  it  has  been  expended;  the  number  of  trees  planted 
at  the  cost  of  the  society,  and  the  number  planted  by  indi- 
viduals; and,  generally,  all  acts  of  the  board  that  may  be 
of  interest  to  the  society.  This  report  shall  be  entered 
on  the  record  of  the  society. 

Art.  II.  This  constitution  may  be  amended  with  the 
approval  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present  at  any 
annual  meeting  of  the  society,  or  at  any  special  meeting 
called  for  that  purpose,  a  month's  notice  of  the  proposed 
amendment,  with  its  object,  having  been  given. 

CONSTITUTION    OF    ROAD  LEAGUES. 

Article  i.  This  organization  shall  be  known  as  the 
Road  League  of County,  (State), 


Art.  2.  Its  object  shall  be  the  improvement  of  public 
roads  in  and  vicinity. 

Art.  3.  Any  person  may  become  a  member  on  payment 
of  one  dollar  per  annum,  and  shall  be  entitled  to  vote  at 
annual  meetings. 

Art.  4.  The  annual  meeting  shall  be  held  in  November 
on  Mondays  on  or  preceding  the  full  moon. 

Art.  5.  The  business  of  the  Road  League  shall  be 
intrusted  to  a  council  of  twelve,  who  shall  be  chosen  by 
ballot  at  the  annual  meetings,  and  they  shall  hold  office 
until  their  successors  are  elected. 

By-laws. 

Art.  I.  The  council  of  twelve  shall  convene  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  election,  and  shall  choose  from  their 
number  a  president,  also  a  secretary  and  treasurer  (who 
may  be  one  and  the  same  person),  and  the  council  shall 
hold  meetings  monthly  at  the  call  of  the  secretary. 

Art.  2.  The  president  shall  preside  at  all  meetings,  and 
when  absent  a  member  present  shall  be  called  to  the  chair 
in  the  usual  way. 


CONSTITUTIONS  OF  AGRICULTUliAL  ASS0C1ATI0:NS.    329 

Art.  3.  The  secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  all  meetings  and  conduct  the  correspondence  of  the 
league. 

Art.  4.  The  treasurer  shall  keep  an  accurate  account  of 
receipts  and  disbursements  in  a  book  for  that  purpose,  and 
all  disbursements  shall  be  authorized  or  approved  by  the 
council. 

Art.  5.  Meetings  of  the  council  may  be  called  by  order 
of  the  president,  or  at  the  request  of  three  of  its  members, 
and  five  shall  constitute  a  quorum. 

Art.  6.  The  president  shall  appoint  a  monthly  committee 
of  two  members  of  the  council,  who  shall  give  special 
supervision  to  the  work  of  the  overseer  in  charge  of  the 
roads  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  league,  and  serve  until 
their  successors  are  appointed. 

Art.  7.  The  council  shall  fill  all  vacancies  occurring  by 
resignation  or  otherwise,  and  they  may  drop  from  their 
number  any  member  who  shall  persistently  neglect  his 
duty,  or  manifest  indifference  by  non-attendance  of  the 
monthly  meetings. 

Art.  8.  The  constitution  and  by-laws  of  this  league  may 
be  changed  by  a  two  thirds  vote  of  the  entire  council, 
notice  of  such  change  having  been  given  in  writing  at  a 
preceding  meeting. 

The  order  of  business  of  the  council  shall  be  as  follows. 
I.  Roll-call.  2.  Reading  of  minutes  of  previous  meeting. 
3.  Report  of  treasurer.  4.  Unfinished  business.  5.  New 
business.  6.  Reports  of  committees  and  of  the  overseers, 
7.  Adjournment. 


330 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


II.  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS  AND 
TABLES. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  FLAG  SIGNALS  ADOPTED 
BY  THE  UNITED  STATES   WEATHER  BUREx\U. 


The  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  furnishes,  when  practicable, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  general  public  and  those  interests  de- 
pendent to  a  greater  or  less  extent  upon  weather  condi- 
tions, the  "Forecasts"  which  are  prepared  daily,  at 
ID  A.M.  and  lo  P.M.,  for  the  following  day.  These  weather 
forecasts  are  telegraphed  to  observers  at  stations  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  railway  officials,  and  many  others, 
and  are  so  worded  as  to  be  readily  communicated  to  the 
public  by  means  of  flags  or  steam  whistles.  The  flags 
adopted  for  this  purpose  are  five  in  number,  and  of  the 
form  and  dimensions  indicated  below: 


No.   I.  No.  2, 

White  Flag.       blue  Flaj 


No.  3. 

White  and  Blue 

Flag. 


No  4.  No.  5. 

Black  Tri-   White   Flag 
angular        with  black 
Flag.      square  in  centre 


Clear  or  fair    Rain  or  snow.    Local  rains 
weather. 


or  snow 


h 


Temperature 

signal. 


Cold  wave. 


No.  I,  white  flag,  6  feet  square,  indicates  clear  or  fair 
weather.  No.  2,  blue  flag,  6  feet  square,  indicates  rain  or 
snow.  No.  3,  white  and  blue  flag  (parallel  bars  of  white 
and  blue),  6  feet  square,  indicates  that  local  rains  or  show- 
ers will  occur,  and  that  the  rainfall  will  not  be  general. 
No.  4,  black  triangular  flag,  4  feet  at  the  base  and  6  feet  in 
length,  always  refers  to  temperature;  when  placed  above 
Nos.  I,  2,  or  3,  it  indicates  warmer  weather;   when  placed 


MISCELLANEOUS   SUBJECTS   AND   TABLES.        331 

below  Nos.  I  2,  or  3,  it  indicates  colder  weather;  when  not 
displayed,  the  indications  are  that  the  temperature  will  re- 
main stationary,  or  that  the  change  in  temperature  will 
not  vary  more  than  4°  from  the  temperature  of  the  same 
hour  of  the  preceding  day  from  March  to  October,  inclu- 
sive, and  not  more  than  6°  for  the  remaining  months  of  the 
year.  No.  5,  white  flag,  6  feet  square,  with  black  square 
in  centre,  indicates  the  approach  of  a  sudden  and  decided 
fall  in  temperature.  This  signal  is  not  to  be  displayed  un- 
less it  is  expected  that  the  temperature  will  fall  to  42"  or 
lower,  and  is  usually  ordered  at  least  twenty-four  hours  in 
advance  of  the  cold  wave. 

Interpretation   of  Displays. 

No.  I,  alone,  indicates  fair  weather,  stationary  tempera- 
ture. 

No.  2,  alone,  indicates  rain  or  snov;,  stationary  tempera- 
ture. 

No.  3,  alone,  indicates  local  rain  or  snow,  stationary 
temperature. 

No.  I,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  fair  weather, 
warmer. 

No.  I,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  colder. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  warmer  weather, 
rain  or  snow. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  colder  weather,  rain 
or  snow. 

No.  3,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  warmer  weather, 
with  local  rains  or  snow. 

No.  3,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  colder  weather, 
with  local  rains  or  snow. 

No.  1,  with  No.  5  above  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  cold 
wave. 

No.  2,  with  No.  5  above  it,  indicates  wet  v/eather,  cold 
wave. 


333  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

LIST   OF  HEADQUARTERS   OF   STATE  WEATHER 
SERVICES. 

The  headquarters  of  the  state  weather  services  are  as 
follows: 

Auburn,  Alabama.  Crete,  Nebraska. 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas.  Carson  City,  Nevada, 

Sacramento,  California.  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey. 

Denver,  Colorado.  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico. 

Atlanta,  Georgia.  Ithaca,  New  York. 

Springfield,  Illinois.  Raleigh,  North  Carolina. 

Indianapolis  or  Lafayette,  Bismarck,  North  Dakota. 

Indiana.  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Des  Moines,  Iowa.  Portland  or  Oswego,  Oregon. 

Topeka,  Kansas.  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

Louisville,  Kentucky.  Columbia,  South  Carolina. 

New  Orleans,  Louisiana.  Huron,  South  Dakota. 

Baltimore,  Maryland.  Nashville,  Tennessee. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts.  Galveston,  Texas. 

Lansing,  Michigan.  Lynchburg,  Virginia. 

Minneapolis,  Minnesota.  Olympia,  Washington. 

University,  Mississippi.  Parkersburg,  West   Virginia. 

Columbia,  Missouri.  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. 

BENEFICIAL.  AND  HARMFUL.  HAWKS  AND  OWLS. 

(Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

Much  misapprehension  exists  among  farmers  as  to  the 
habits  of  birds  of  prey.  Examination  of  the  contents  of 
the  stomachs  of  such  birds  to  the  number  of  several 
thousand  has  established  the  fact  that  their  food  consists 
almost  entirely  of  injurious  mammals  and  insects,  and  that 
accordingly  these  birds  are  in  most  cases  positively  beneficial 
to  the  farmer,  and  should  be  fostered  and  protected. 

Among  those  wholly  beneficial  are  the  large,  rough-legged 
hawk;  its  near  relative,  the  squirrel-hawk,  or  ferruginous 
roughleg;  and  the  four  kites:  the  white-tailed  kite,  Missis- 
sippi kite,  swallow-tailed  kite,  and  everglade  kite. 

The  class  that  is  beneficial  in  the  main — that  is,  whose 
depredations  are  of  little  consequence  in  comparison  with 


MISCELLANEOUS   SUBJECTS    AND   TABLES.        333 

the  good  it  does — includes  a  majority  of  the  hawks  and 
owls,  among  them  being  the  following  species  and  their 
races:  March  hawk,  Harris's  hawk,  red-tailed  hawk,  red- 
shouldered  hawk,  short-tailed  hawk,  white-tailed  hawk, 
Swainson's  hawk,  short-winged  hawk,  broad-winged  hawk, 
Mexican  black  hawk,  Mexican  goshawk,  sparrow-hawk, 
Audubon's  caracara,  barn-owl,  long-eared  owl,  short-eared 
owl,  great  gray  owl,  barred  owl.  Western  owl,  Richardson's 
owl,  Acadian  owl,  screech-owl,  fiammulated  screech  owl, 
snowy  owl,  hawk-owl,  burrowing  owl,  pygmy  owl,  fer- 
ruginous pygmy  owl,  and  elf-owl. 

The  class  in  which  the  harmful  and  the  beneficial  qualities 
about  balance  each  other  includes  the  golden  eagle,  bald 
eagle,  pigeon-hawk,  Richardson's  hawk,  Aplomado  falcon, 
prairie  falcon,  and  the  great  horned  owl. 

The  harjnful  z\z.ss  comprises  the  gyrfalcons,  duck-hawk, 
sharp-shinned  hawk,  Cooper's  hawk,  and  goshawk. 

HOW    PATENTS    ARE    ISSUED. 

Patents  are  issued  in  the  name  of  the  United  States,  and 
under  the  seal  of  the  Patent  Office,  to  any  person  who  has 
invented  or  discovered  any  new  and  useful  art,  machine, 
manufacture,  or  composition  of  matter,  or  any  new  or  use- 
ful improvement  thereof,  not  known  or  used  by  others  in 
this  country,  and  not  patented  or  described  in  any  printed 
publication  in  this  or  any  foreign  country  before  the  inven- 
tion or  discovery  thereof,  and  not  in  public  use  or  on  sale 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  application,  unless  the 
same  is  proved  to  have  been  abandoned  ;  and  any  person 
who  by  his  own  industry,  genius,  efforts,  and  expense  has 
invented  and  produced  any  new  and  original  design  for  a 
manufacture,  bust,  statua,  alto-relievo  or  bas-relief,  or  any 
new  and  original  design  for  the  printing  of  woolen,  silk, 
cotton,  or  other  fabrics,  any  new  and  original  impression, 
ornament,  patent,  pattern,  print,  or  picture  to  be  painted^ 
printed,  cast,  or  otherwise  placed   on  or  worked   into  any 


334  GEXKRAL   TOPICS. 

article  of  manufacture  ;  or  any  new,  useful,  and  original 
shape  or  configuration  of  any  article  of  manufacture,  the 
same  not  having  been  known  or  used  by  others  before  his 
invention  or  production  thereof,  or  patented  or  described  in 
any  printed  publication,  may,  upon  payment  of  the  fee  pre- 
scribed and  other  due  proceedings  had,  obtain  a  patent  on 
the  same. 

Every  patent  contains  a  short  title  or  description  of  the 
invention  or  discovery,  correctly  indicating  its  nature  and 
design,  and  a  grant  to  the  patentee,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  for 
the  term  of  seventeen  years  of  the  exclusive  right  to  make, 
use,  and  vend  the  invention  or  discovery  throughout  the 
United  States  and  the  Territories,  referring  to  the  specifica- 
tion for  the  particulars  thereof. 

If  it  appears  that  the  inventor,  at  the  time  of  making  his 
application,  believed  himself  to  be  the  original  and  first  in- 
ventor or  discoverer,  a  patent  will  not  be  refused  on  account 
of  the  invention  or  discovery  or  any  part  thereof  having 
been  known  or  used  in  a  foreign  country  before  his  inven- 
vention  or  discovery  thereof,  if  it  had  not  been  patented  or 
described  in  a  printed  publication. 

No  person  shall  be  debarred  from  receiving  a  patent  for 
his  invention  by  reason  of  its  having  been  first  patented  in 
a  foreign  country,  unless  the  application  for  the  foreign 
patent  was  filed  more  than  seven  months  prior  to  the  filing 
of  the  application  in  this  country.  But  every  patent  granted 
for  an  invention  which  has  been  previously  patented  in  a 
foreign  country  shall  be  so  limited  as  to  expire  at  the  same 
time  with  the  foreign  patent,  or  if  there  be  more  than  one, 
at  the  same  time  with  the  one  having  the  shortest  term,  but 
in  no  case  shall  it  be  in  force  more  than  seventeen  years. 

Joint  inventors  are  entitled  to  a  joint  patent;  neither  can 
claim  one  separately.  Independent  inventors  of  distinct 
and  independent  improvements  in  the  same  machine  can- 
not obtain  a  joint  patent  for  their  separate  inventions;  nor 
does  the  fact  that  one  furnishes  the  capital  and  another 
makes  the  invention  entitle  them  to  make  application  as 
joint  inventors  ;  but  in  such  cases  they  may  become  joint 
patentees. 


MISCELLANEOUS    SU15JECTS   AND    TABLES.        335 

Applications. — Application  for  a  patent  must  be  made  in 
writing  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  The  applicant 
must  also  file  in  the  Patent  Office  a  written  description  of 
the  same,  and  of  the  manner  and  process  of  making,  con- 
structing, compounding  and  using  it,  in  such  full,  clear,  con- 
cise, and  exact  terms  as  to  enable  any  person  skilled  in  the 
art  or  science  to  which  it  appertains,  or  with  which  it  is 
most  nearly  connected,  to  make,  construct,  compound,  and 
use  the  same;  and  in  case  of  a  machine,  he  shall  explain  the 
principle  thereof,  and  the  best  mode  in  which  he  has  con- 
templated applying  that  principle,  so  as  to  distinguish  it 
from  other  inventions;  and  particularly  point  out  and  dis- 
tinctly claim  the  part,  improvement,  or  combination  which 
he  claims  as  his  invention  or  discovery.  The  specification 
and  claim  shall  be  signed  by  the  inventor  and  attested  by 
two  witnesses. 

When  the  nature  of  the  case  admits  of  drawings,  the  ap- 
plicant must  furnish  a  drawing  of  the  required  size,  signed 
by  the  inventor  or  his  attorney  in  fact,  and  attested  by  two 
witnesses,  which  shall  be  filed  in  the  Patent  Office.  In 
cases  of  inventions  that  admit  of  representation  by  model, 
the  applicant,  if  required  by  the  Patent  Office,  shall  furnish 
a  model  of  convenient  size  to  exhibit  advantageously  the 
several  parts  of  the  invention  or  discovery. 

The  applicant  shall  make  oath  that  he  does  verily  believe 
himself  to  be  the  original  and  first  inventor  and  discoverer 
of  the  art,  machine,  manufacture,  composition,  or  improve- 
ment for  which  he  solicits  a  patent;  that  he  does  not  know 
and  does  not  believe  that  the  same  was  ever  before  known 
or  used,  and  shall  state  of  what  country  he  is  a  citizen  and 
where  he  resides.  Such  oath  may  be  made  before  any  per- 
son within  the  United  States  authorized  by  law  to  admin- 
ister oaths,  or,  when  the  applicant  resides  in  a  foreign 
country,  before  any  minister,  charge  d'affaires,  consul,  or 
commercial  agent  holding  commission  under  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  or  before  any  notary  public  of 
the  foreign  country  in  which  the  applicant  may  be,  provided 
such  notary  is  authorized  by  the  laws  of  his  country  to 
administer  oaths. 


336  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

On  the  filing  of  such  application  and  the  payment  of  the 
fees  required  by  law,  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  shall 
cause  an  examination  to  be  made,  and  if,  on  such  examina- 
tion, it  appears  that  the  claimant  is  justly  entitled  to  a 
patent  under  the  law,  and  that  the  same  is  sufficiently  use- 
ful and  important,  the  Commissioner  shall  issue  a  patent 
therefor. 

Assignments. — Every  patent  or  any  interest  therein  shall 
be  assignable  in  law  by  an  instrument  in  writing,  and  the 
patentee  or  his  assigns  or  legal  representatives  may  in  like 
manner  grant  and  convey  an  exclusive  right  under  his 
patent  to  the  whole  or  any  specified  part  of  the  United 
States. 

Caveats. — A  caveat,  under  the  patent  law,  is  a  notice 
given  to  the  office  of  the  caveator's  claim  as  inventor,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  grant  of  a  patent  to  another  for  the 
same  alleged  invention  upon  an  application  filed  during 
the  life  of  the  caveat  without  notice  to  the  caveator. 

Any  citizen  of  the  United  States  who  has  made  a  new 
invention  or  discovery,  and  desires  more  time  to  mature 
the  same,  may,  on  payment  of  a  fee  of  ten  dollars,  file  in 
the  Patent  Office  a  caveat  setting  forth  the  object  and  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  invention,  and  praying 
protection  of  his  right  until  he  shall  have  matured  his 
invention.  Such  caveats  shall  be  filed  in  the  confidential 
archives  of  the  office  and  preserved  in  secrecy,  and  shall  be 
operative  for  the  term  of  one  year  from  the  filing  thereof. 

An  alien  shall  have  the  privilege  herein  granted  if  he 
has  resided  in  the  United  States  one  year  next  preceding 
the  filing  of  his  caveat,  and  has  made  oath  of  his  intention 
to  become  a  citizen. 

Fees.—Tho.  following  are  the  rates  for  patent  fees,  and 
these  are  payable  in  advance: 

On  filing  each  original  application  for  a  patent  (except  in 
design  cases),  $15. 

On  issuing  each  original  patent  (except  in  design  cases), 
$20. 

In  design  cases:  For  three  years  and  six  months,  $10; 
for  seven  years,  $15;  for  fourteen  years,  $30. 


MISCELLAISrEOUS    SUBJECTS    AND    TABLES.        337 

On  filing  each  caveat,  $io. 

On  every  application  for  the  reissue  of  a  patent,  $30. 

On  filing  each  disclaimer,  $10. 

On  every  application  for  the  extension  of  a  patent,  $50. 

On  the  granting  of  every  extension  of  a  patent,  $50. 

For  certified  copies  of  patents  and  other  papers  in  manu- 
script, 10  cents  per  hundred  words. 

For  recording  every  assignment,  agreement,  power  of 
attorney,  or  other  paper  of  three  hundred  words  or  under, 
$1;  of  over  three  hundred  words  and  under  one  thousand 
words,  $2;  of  over  one  thousand  words,  $3.  For  copies  of 
drawings,  the  reasonable  cost  of  making  them. 

LEGAL.   HOLIDAYS.] 

January  I,  New  Year's:  All  States  except  Massachusetts, 
Minnesota,  New  Hampshire,  and  Rhode  Island. 

January  8,  Anniversary  of  Battle  of  New  Orleans :  Loui- 
siana. 

January  19,  Lee's  Birthday  :  Florida,  Georgia,  North  Car- 
olina, and  Virginia. 

February  12,  Lincoln' s  Birthday  :  Illinois,  Minnesota,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  and  Washington. 

February  22,  Washington' s  Birthday  :  All  States  except 
Iowa,  Mississippi,  and  New  Mexico. 

March  2,  Texan  Independence  Anniversary  :   Texas. 

April,  first  Saturday,  Arbor  Day  :  Utah. 

April,  first  Wednesday,  Election  Day :  Rhode  Island. 

April  19,  Concord  Day  :  Massachusetts. 

April  21,  Anniversary  of  Battle  of  San  Jacinto  :   Texas. 

April  22,  Arbor  Day  :  Nebraska. 

April  26,  Memorial  Day  :  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  and 
Tennessee, 

May,  first  Friday,  Arbor  Day  ;  Rhode  Island  and  Idaho. 

May  10.  Mefnorial  Day  :   North  Carolina. 

May  20,  Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  Independence :  North 
Carolina. 

May  30,  Memorial  Day :  All  States  except  Alabama, 
Arkansas,    Florida,    Georgia,    Kentucky,    Louisiana,    New 


338  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

Mexico.  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Texas,  and  Vir- 
ginia. 

June  3,  y^^^rj^w  Davis's  Birthday  :   Florida. 

July  4,  Independence  Day :  All  States  and  District  of  Co- 
lumbia. 

July  24,  Pioneers'  Day  :   Utah. 

August  16,  Bennington  Battle  Day  :  Vermont. 

September,  first  Monday,  Labor  Day  :  All  States  and  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia. 

September  9,  Admission  Day  :  California. 

October  15,  Lincoln  Day  :  Connecticut. 

October  31,  Admission  into  the  Union  An?iiversary  :  Ne- 
vada. 

November,  General  Election  Day  (first  Tuesday  after  first 
Monday)  :  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Florida,  Idaho, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Maryland,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Montana, 
Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  North 
Dakota,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South 
Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Washington, 
West  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming. 

November,  last  Thursday,  Thanksgiving  Day:  In  all 
States,  though  not  a  stationary  holiday  in  some. 

December  25,  Christmas  Day  :  All  States  and  District  of 
Columbia. 

Ardor  Day  is  a  legal  holiday  in  Idaho,  Kansas,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Wyoming,  the  day  being  set  by  the  governor. 

Mardi  Gras  (the  last  day  before  Lent)  is  observed  as  a 
holiday  in  Alabama  and  Louisiana. 

Good  Friday  is  observed  as  a  holiday  in  Alabama,  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  Maryland,  Minnesota,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ten- 
nessee. 

Every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock  noon  is  a  legal  holiday  in 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  New  Orleans  ;  also  from  June 
to  September  in  Colorado  and  Pennsylvania. 


3JI3CELLAXEOU3    SCBJECTS    AXD    TABLES.        o39 

WHAT  TO  DO  IN  CASE    OF  ACCIDENTS. 

By  J.  NoER,  M.D.,  Stoug-hton,  Wis. 

Wounds. — The  all-important  item  in  the  treatment  of 
wounds  or  cuts  is  absolute  cleanliness  or  asepsis.  Asepsis 
can  be  secured  by  having  everything  that  is  to  be  used  for 
the  wound  boiled  just  before  applying  it. 

Before  dressing  a  wound: 

ist.  Wash  your  hands,  scrub  and  clean  finger-nails 
thoroughly  with  soap  and  hot  boiled  \i aiiQX . 

2d.  Wash  the  limb  or  parts  around  cut  or  wound  with 
boiled  water  and  soap. 

3d.  Wash  out  the  wound  with  hot  boiled  water.  If  there 
is  still  oozing  from  the  cut  surfaces, press  clean  cloths 
wrung  out  of  boiled  water  as  hot  as  hands  can  bear  against 
the  bleeding  surfaces  till  it  stops. 

4th.  Draw  the  edges  of  the  wound  together  with  strips 
of  court-plaster. 

5th.  Lay  over  the  wound  so  as  to  cover  it  well  ten  to 
twelve  thicknesses  of  clean  boiled  and  baked  dry  cheese- 
cloth, sheeting,  or  linen,  and  fasten  on  with  a  bandage. 

6th.  Let  the  injured  parts  be  at  rest.  If  you  na\.; 
secured  asepsis  and  gotten  the  edges  of  the  wound  togethu; 
closely,  keep  the  wounded  parts  at  rest  for  from  three  to  six 
days;  the  wound  will  then  heal  without  pain  or  pus,  and 
without  swelling,  inflammation,  or  fever.  Don't  hinder 
the  healing  of  a  wound  by  putting  pitch,  tobacco  juice, 
"  healing  ointments,"  liniments,  or  other  filth  into  it. 

Broken  or  Mangled  Limbs  should  be  supported  by 
temporary  splints,  made  from  boards,  pasteboard,  shingles, 
etc.  Put  one  on  each  side  of  the  limb  and  tie  on  with 
handkerchief  or  bandages.  The  splints  should  be  long 
enough  to  support  entire  limb. 

Burns  and  Scalds — If  the  burn  is  extensive,  place  the 
person  in  a  bath  of  lukewarm  water,  keep  the  body  im- 
mersed up  to  the  chin,  see  that  the  water  is  kept  warm; 
patient  may  be  left  in  bath  indefinitely.  If  the  burn  is  not 
large,  but  painful,  cover  the  burned  surface  with  a  thick 
layer  of  flour,  powdered  starch,  zinc  ointment,  or  cotton 


340  GEKtlliAL   TOPICS. 

batting.  Equal  parts  of  limewater  and  linseed  oil  may  be 
applied,  and  the  burn  covered  with  cotton.  It  is  impor- 
tant in  burns  to  apply  a  dressing  that  will  exclude  the  air. 
In  large  burns  there  is  always  severe  shock:  treat  this 
as  directed  below. 

Shock. — When  a  person  has  been  severely  injured  or 
badly  frightened,  there  follows  a  condition  of  the  system 
which  is  known  as  shock.  A  person  suffering  from  shock 
generally  becomes  pale,  cold,  faint,  and  trembling  with  a 
small  weak  pulse.  The  mind  is  dull  and  the  person  looks 
anxious  and  distressed.  Sometimes  the  person  is  excited 
and  restless. 

Treatment. — Let  the  person  rest  in  a  quiet  cheerful 
place.  If  he  is  little  injured,  tell  him  so  calmly.  If  the 
injury  is  severe,  and  there  is  pain,  broken  bones,  bleeding, 
etc.,  you  must  still  be  calm,  cheerful,  and  helpful.  Give  a 
tablespoonful  (2  or  3,  if  a  drinker)  of  whiskey  in  water  every 
quarter  or  half  hour.  Wrap  him  in  warm  blankets  and 
lay  hot  water  bottles  around  him.  If  there  is  much  pain, 
give  10  drops  of  laudanum.  In  case  of  bleeding,  open 
wounds,  or  broken  bones,  treat  them  as  directed.  A  flushed 
face  and  fever  show  that  the  patient  is  reviving  and  does 
not  need  hot-water  bottles  or  whiskey.  Never  let  an  in- 
jured person  be  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  people. 

Hemorrhage  or  Bleeding  always  occurs  after  an  in- 
jury. It  is  the  result  of  the  tearing  or  cutting  off  of  the 
blood-vessels.  A  person  suffering  from  hemorrhage  either 
internal  or  external  is  pale,  faint,  with  feeble  pulse. 

Treatmejit. — Keep  the  person  quiet.  If  the  bleeding 
comes  from  a  wound  in  the  upper  or  lower  limbs,  it  will 
5top  by  raising  the  limb  up  above  the  rest  of  the  body. 
Tie  clean  cloths  tightly  over  the  sore.  If  the  blood  comes 
in  spurts,  tie  a  rope  or  handkerchief  tightly  around  limb 
alcove  cut  nearest  to  body.  If  bleeding  is  slight,  it  will 
stop  by  tying  clean  cloths  tightly  over  the  cut.  Ice  may 
be  applied  over  the  bleeding  vessels.  Clean  cloths  wrung 
out  of  water  as  hot  as  hands  can  bear  is  often  effective. 

Never  use  cobwebs,  tobacco  juice,  or  other  filthy  things 
to  stop  bleeding.      If  a  person  spits  or  coughs  up  red  frothy 


MlSCELLAN:eOUS   SUBJECTS   AND   TABLES.        '64:1 

blood,  he  is  probably  bleeding  from  the  lungs.  Let  him 
lie  down,  and  if  it  continues  to  come  up  apply  ice  to  chest 
and  give  a  teaspoonful  of  extract  of  ergot. 

Sunstroke  and  Heat  Exhaustion. — In  sunstroke  the 
person  has  a  red  face;  skin  is  hot  and  dry;  there  is  high 
fever;  breathing  and  pulse  are  very  rapid.  There  is  often 
delirium  and  convulsions.  Put  the  patient  in  a  cold  bath; 
apply  ice  to  the  head  and  rub  the  skin  with  pieces  of  ice. 
If  he  cannot  be  put  into  a  bath,  put  him  in  the  shade  and 
pour  cold  water  over  him,  or  wrap  him  in  cold  wet  blank- 
ets and  pour  cold  water  over  his  head.  In  heat  exhaus- 
tion the  patient  is  pale  and  the  skin  cool.  There  is  no 
fever.  Let  the  person  rest  in  the  shade.  Give  stimulants, 
as  hot  coffee  or  whiskey. 

Poisoning. — In  any  case  of  poisoning  when  the  kind  of 
poison  is  unknown,  induce  vomiting  at  once  by  giving 
warm  water  with  or  without  a  tablespoonful  of  ground 
mustard,  or  double  this  amount  of  salt  to  the  teacup. 
Thrust  your  finger  down  his  throat  to  help  the  emetic. 
Milk,  raw  eggs,  gruel,  oil  should  be  given  freely  if  irritant 
poisons,  like  potash,  lye,  or  acids,  have  been  taken.  The 
following  table  contains  suggestions  for  the  proper  treat- 
ment of  the  forms  of  poisoning  occurring  most  frequently: 


342 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


Poison. 


Acids: 
Sulfuric, 
Nitric, 
Muriatic, 
Oxalic. 

Carbolic   acid   and  } 
Creosote. 

Alkalies: 
Ammonia, 
Soda, 
Potash, 
Lye. 

Arsenic. 
Paris  Green, 
Poison  fly-paper. 
Rough  on  rats. 


Corrosive 
mate. 


subli-j 


lodin. 

Opium, 
Morphin, 
Laudanum, 
Paregoric. 

Poison    gas 
coal  stove. 


from 


Treatment. 


Give  soap.  sod:i.  whitewash,  or  magnesia,  mixed  in 

water.     Produce  vt>miting. 
Give  gruel,  milk,  e.^gs  (uncooked). 
Relieve  pain   by  giving   lo  drops   of   laudanum   in 

water. 

Give  Epsom  salts,  raw  eggs. 
Produce  vomiting. 

Give  vinegar,  lemon   or  orange   juice,  or    any  acid 

diluted  111  plenty  ot  water. 
Give  miik,  gruel,  white  of  egg,  oils. 
For  pain  give  lo  drops  of  laudanum. 

Produce  vomiting  if  there  is  none  already. 

H  yd  rated  oxid  of   iron  with   magnesia  in  water  ib 

the  antidote. 
Give  2  tablespoonsful  of  castor  oil. 

Produce  vomiting.     Give  a  teaspoonful  of  tannin  in 

water. 
Give  raw  eggs,  milk,  cas'or  oil. 

Produce  vomiting. 

Give  starch  and  water,  raw  eggs,  milk,  or  gruel. 

Produce  vomiting.  Inject  from  a  pint  to  a  quart  of 
strong  coffee  into  rectum,  or  give  by  mouth  if 
patient  can  swallow. 

Keep  patient  awake. 


Fresh  air  ;  stimulants,  as  coffee,  ammonia. 


MISCELLANEOUS   SUBJECTS   AND   TABLES.        343 

The  following  additional  suggestions  are  offered: 

Lightning. — Dash  cold  water  over  person  struck. 

3Iad-clog-  or  Snake-bite. — Tie  cord  tight  above  wound. 
Suck  the  wound  and  cauterize  with  caustic  or  white-hot 
iron  at  once,  or  cut  out  adjoining  parts  with  a  sharp  knife. 
Give  stimulants,  as  whisky,  brandy,  etc. 

Sting  of  Venomous  Insects,  etc. — Apply  weak  am- 
monia, oil,  salt  water,  or  iodin. 

Fainting. — Place  flat  on  back,  allow  fresh  air,  and 
sprinkle  with  water.      Place  head  lower  than  rest  of  body. 

Cinders  in  the  Eye. — Roll  soft  paper  up  like  a  lamp- 
lighter and  wet  the  tip  to  remove  cinder,  or  use  a  medicine- 
dropper  to  draw  it  out.      Rub  the  other  eye. 

Fire  in  One's  Clothing. — Don't  run,  especially  not 
down-stairs  or  out-of-doors.  Roll  on  carpet,  or  wrap  in 
woolen  rug  or  blanket.  Keep  the  head  down  so  as  not  to 
inhale  flame. 

Fire  in  a  Building. — Crawl  on  the  floor.  The  clearest 
air  is  the  lowest  in  the  room.  Cover  head  with  woolen 
■wrap,  wet  if  possible. 

Fire  from  Kerosene. — Don't  use  water,  it  will  spread 
the  flames.  Dirt,  sand,  or  flour  is  the  best  extinguisher; 
or  smother  with  woolen  rug,  table-cloth  or  carpet. 

Suffocation  from  Inhaling  Illuminating-gas. — Get  into 
fresh  air  as  soon  as  possible,  and  lie  down.  Keep  warm. 
Take  ammonia,  20  drops  to  a  tumbler  of  water,  at  frequent 
intervals  ;  also  2-4  drops  tincture  of  nux  vomica  every 
hour  or  two  for  5  or  6  hours,     {World Almanac,  1899.) 


344 


GENKtlAL  TOPICS. 


INTEREST   TABLES. 


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MiSCELLAN'EOUS    SUBJECTS    AND   TABLES. 


345 


TABLE    OF   WAGES   BY   THE   WEEK. 

(Computed  on  a  basis  of  ten  hours'  labor  per  day.) 


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TABLE    OF    AVAGES   BY   THE    DAY. 

(Computed  on  a  basis  of  ten  hours"'  labor  per  day.) 


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346 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


M   N   fO  ■*  in>0   «>00   O  0   w   N   fn  -^  in\0   1^00   0\  0   M   N    ro  •*  mvo    t^oo   0\  0   - 

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0   "   M   f^  ■«-  i^vO   r-oo  0\  O   "   (N   ro  T)-  lovo    r^oo   o^  0   m   m   r<)  -j-  invo   t^oo   o  0 

•AOM 

O   M    (N    m  -"l-  lOMD    t^oo   O  O    M    N    rr)  ^  io\0    t-.oo   o  0    w    <N    ro  -^  u-i'O    r-~00   O 
VO  vo'vO  vo  VO  vo  v0V0"\0  vQvoSSvOvoSSSvoS  VO  ^O  VO  VO  vO  VO  ■•£-  vO  ^  'O 

•J30 

Ov  o  M   PI   m  •<}-  mo   t^oo   o  0  >H   p)   m  ■«•  mo   t--oo  o  o  -   pi   ro  -*  mo   r-oo  o^ 
O  O  O  O  OO  O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O  0*0  o^o  o  ov8oooooo<i 

•adag 

o  o   "   M   fo  •<»-  mo   t^oo  o>  0   >-   PI   m  -1-  mo   t^oo   ct.  o  "   pi   r^  ■*  mo   r^oo 
oovooovSvovovooooovoooooooo  o'o^o'o  o'vo  o  o'o^ 

■Snv 

'S.  S)oo  00  cS  oyooco'ro  coooco'oono-So^o^o-  o^'ov  c^  8  0  o  ?  o  o  ^  o  ^ 

•.qnf 

1^00   c>  0  "  M   fo  -4-  mo   r^oo  o  o   «   pi   "^  'i-  mo   t^oD  o\  o   >-   pi   m  -r  mo   r-- 
-i--.r-<tmmmmmmmmm  mo  oioooooooo    i^t-^t-^t-~.r^t^t^i^ 

•aunf 

mmmmmiommmmmmmiommmmmmmmmmi?)mmm>Sm 

•Xbh 

s~;s,?H|s||ss"„|8oS?jraraja^aS5r^ 

•ludv 

o   (^00   o^  0    '-'    PI    ro  "^  w^o    t^oo   o  0    i-<    PI   r*~,  ^  lOO    t^oo   o^  0    ■-    Pi   ro  ■^  m 
m  m  m  mM3  ooooooooo   t^t^t^t>.p-t^t^i-^t^  t^so  co  oo  oo  oo  oo 

•qoJBJM 

mo   t^oo  o\  0   ►-    PI   P^  -^  "lO    r»-oo  0\  O   "i   pi   (^  -+  "^O   t-^oo  ch  0   "    n   <"'".  't  >n 

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^"^  ^  R  o  s  o  ?  n  "S  o 'o  ^  2  "  2  ►?  :r  ;:-~^  ^°=  ^  2 ;:  ^!  j: ;! 

•UBf 

O    t^oo    ON  O    M    PI    ro  Tj-  mo    r^oo    O  0    •-    in    ro  -^  mo    ^^oo    o  0    -    M    r'.  "S-  mO 
oooo   f^p~t--t^r~-t^t^t^r^  p-oo  oooocooooooocoooGO   o-cooo^oo 
ro  ro  r<-.  rn  ro  (^  M  (^  rn  ro  ro  ro  rn  m  ro  CO  rr;  ro  ro  ro  m  ro  ro  (V)  ro  fti  ro  ro  ro  f-i  f, 

•33a 

mo   p-co   o  0   "   M   ro  Tj-  mo   t^oo   o  o   ►<   pi   ro  ■<*■  mvo   t^oo   o-  o   «   pi   m  -r  m, 
^oror<^^or^^-r-r'*■TJ-^^-■T^-rmmmmmmmmm  mo  O  O  O  O  o 
roi^mrocommroror^rocnmrnrorOPOcOPOroromfirorororoPOf,  rom 

•AON 

•530 

PJP4PIPIC<MC<WWPIPIPIP<PIPIC<P<PIP<PIP4PIMPINNfOfOt^rOrn 

•Idas 

-X  mo    P^OO    O  O    1-    PI    PO  ■*  mo    t-^00    Cn  0    m    pi    ro  -^  m.o    t^oo    O  O    -    M    m 

•Snv 

-  ;r  -^  ^=2  2^  S  ;;  S  ??  ^  S>^  ^^  g^  ^  ^  ?J,  ^  ?;  ;c;^  p;-  ^:  0  -  PI  5 

«PiPipinwpir<fip<piPipipipipiPip<Mp<PiPiPiPit,NPi^^NN 

•AM 

cS  ^oJc^S  c^S  c^  8. 3^  Sn  S  S;  S^  S;^  a  8  5  S  S-  ?  S'^  S-<?  8^  2  n  2 

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m  m  m  m  m  m  m  mo  o  o  o  o  O  o  o  o  o   t^  p^  r^  K  ^  iC^  1^^  ^TO  oo 

1                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   «MWH.MM«« 

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1    "   PI   ro  'I-  mo   p^oo  o\  o   K   PI   p<^  T^  mo   p^o3   o-  o   «   n   i^  -»■  mo   p-to  o^  n   -^ 

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CT.  Sv  5  o^  o>^  a^^  o^  o  o  0  o  0  o^'o  0*0  o"  2  ^  M  IT  «  ^"2  I^'2  2~  § 

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vg  vS  ^  vS'vS-^S  vS-S  ^  a  t^  ^  fC  ^  tC^  f^'R  Scg  cS  cS  ^oJciTS  c^S  cg^  8. 

•q^ai 

pj   f^  ■*  mo   f^oo   t>  0   w   P<   r^  ■*  u~.0   t^oo   O^  0   '-   P«   ro  T  m\o   r-.o5   n\ 
roporoPOrorofOr'i-»-Ti-^,r-^,l-r^„.,^,tmmmmmmmmmm 

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1    M  M  f<i  ■4-  mo  t^oo  o  O  M  N  ro  ■*  mo   (^oo  o  O  m  n  m  ■*  mvo  t^oo  0\  o   « 

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„HMMMH«l-lMWNPlNNPINNMPlWPOfn 

MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS   AN"D   TABLES.        347 

DOMESTIC   POSTAGE. 

First  Class. — Letters  and  all  written  matter,  whether 
sealed  or  unsealed,  and  all  other  matter  sealed, nailed,  sewed, 
tied,  or  fastened  in  any  manner,  so  that  it  cannot  be  easily 
examined,  two  cents  per  ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  A  "  Spe- 
cial Delivery  "  ten-cent  stamp  when  attached  to  a  letter,  in 
addition  to  the  lawful  postage,  shall  entitle  the  letter  to  im- 
mediate delivery  at  or  within  one  mile  of  any  post-office. 
Postal  cards,  one  cent  each;  with  paid  reply,  two  cents  each. 

Second  Class. — All  regular  newspapers,  magazines  and 
other  periodicals  issued  at  intervals  not  exceeding  three 
months;  the  postage  is  one  cent  for  each  four  ounces,  payable 
by  postage  stamps. 

Third  Class. — Embraces  printed  books,  pamphlets,  cir- 
culars, engravings,  lithographs,  proof-sheets  and  manu- 
script accompanying  the  same,  and  all  matter  of  the  same 
general  character,  and  not  having  the  character  of  personal 
correspondence.  Circulars  produced  by  hektograph  or  sim- 
ilar process,  or  by  electric  pen,  are  rated  as  third  class. 
The  limit  of  weight  for  mail  matter  of  the  third  class  is  four 
pounds,  except  in  the  case  of  single  books  exceeding  that 
weight.  The  rate  of  postage  on  mail  matter  of  the  third 
class  is  one  cent  for  each  two  ounces  or  fraction  thereof. 

Fourth  Class. — All  mailable  matter  not  included  in  the 
three  preceding  classes,  which  is  so  prepared  for  mailing  as 
to  be  easily  taken  from  the  vv^-apper  and  examined.  Rate. 
one  cent  per  ounce  or  fraction  thereof,  except  seeds,  roots, 
cuttings,  bulbs,  plants,  and  scions,  which  are  one  cent  per 
two  ounces.  Limit  of  weight,  4  lbs.  Full  prepayment  com- 
pulsory. Liquids  and  other  like  injurious  matter  not  admit- 
ted except  under  conditions  which  may  be  learned  at  any 
post-office. 

Registry  fee,  eight  cents,  which,  with  the  postage,  must  be 
fully  prepaid.  The  name  and  address  of  sender  must  be 
given  on  the  outside  of  the  envelope  or  wrapper. 

FOREIGN   POSTAGE. 

To  all  parts  of  the  Universal  Postal  Union  (embracing 
nearly  every  civilized  country): 

On  Letters, /f  27^  cents  for  each  half  ounce  or  fraction  there- 
of; prepayment  optional.  Double  rates  are  collected  on 
deli'"^ry  of  unpaid  or  short-paid  letters. 


348  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

On  newspapers,  books,  pamphlets,  photographs,  sheet 
music,  maps,  engravings,  and  similar  printed  matter,  one 
cent  for  each  two  ozinces  or  fraction  thereof. 

To  Canada  (including  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
Manitoba,  and  Prince  Edward  Island):  Letters,  two  cents  for 
each  otince  or  fraction  thereof;  Books,  Circulars,  and  similar 
printed  matter,  one  cent  for  each  two  oti7ices  or  fraction  there- 
of; Second  Class  Matter,  same  as  in  the  United  States; 
Samples  and  Merchandise,  one  cent  per  ounce.  Packages 
must  not  exceed  4  lbs.  6  oz.  in  weight;  prepayment  compul- 
sory. 

To  Mexico:  Letters,  Postal  Cards,  and  printed  matter, 
same  rates  as  in  the  United  States.  Samples,  otie  cent  per 
ounce;  Merchandise  other  than  Samples  can  only  be  sent 
by  Parcel  Post. 

Money  Order  Fees. — For  Money  Orders  in  denomina- 
tions of  $100  or  less,  the  following  fees  are  charged:  Orders 
not  exceeding  $2.50,  3c. ;  over  $2.50  to  $5,  5c. ;  $5  to  Sio,  8c, ; 
$10  to  $20,  IOC. ;  $20  to  $30,  I2C. ;  $30  to  $40,  15c. ;  $40  to  850, 
i8c.;  $50  to  $60,  20c.;  $60  to  875,  25c.;  $75  to  $100,  30C. 

Express  Money  Orders  may  be  bought  of  the  leading  ex- 
press companies  at  the  following  rates:  Not  over  $5,  5c.; 
$5  to  $10,  Be;  $10  to  $20,  loc;  $20  to  $30,  12c.;  $30  to  $40. 
15c. ;  $40  to  $50,  i8c. ;  $50  to  $60,  20c. ;  $60  to  $75,  25c. ;  $75 
to  $100,  30c. 

international  or  foreign  money-order  fees. 

On  Algeria,  Belgium,  British  India,  Cape  Colony,  Constan- 
tinople, Denmark,  Dominion  of  Canada,  Egypt,  England, 
France,  German  Empire,  Hong  Kong,  Ireland,  Italy,  Ja- 
maica, Japan,  Newfoundland,  New  South  Wales,  New 
Zealand,  Portugal,  Sandwich  Islands,  Scotland,  Shanghai, 
Sweden,  Switzerland,  Tasmania,  Victoria. 

For  Orders  of  $10.  or  less,  loc.  I  Over  S50,  not  exceeding  $60,  60c. 
Ov'er§io,  not  exceeding  S20,  20c.  I  Over  $60,  not  exceeding  $70,  70c. 
Over  $20,  not  exceeding  $30,  30c.  |  Over  $70.  not  exceeding  $80,  80c. 
Over  $30,  not  exceeding  $40.  40c.  I  Over  $3o,  not  exceeding  S90,  90c. 
Over  $40,  not  exceeding  $50,  50c.  |  Over  ^o,  not  exceeding  $100,  $1. 

Orders  can  also  be  obtained  on  Austria  and  the  East  Indies 
by  remittance  through  the  Postal  Department  of  Switzer- 
land, subject  to  the  rates  of  the  Swiss  Department  to  those 
countries.  Also  on  Norway  and  the  Netherlands,  through 
the  Postal  Department  of  the  German  Empire,  subject  to 
the  rates  of  the  German  Department  to  those  countries. 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES.  349 


III.     WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 

CUST03IAKY    SYSTi:3I    OP   AVEIGHTS   AND 

MEASURES. 

I.    Weights. 

A,  AVOIRDUPOIS   WEIGHT. 

I  ton  =  2000  pounds  (lbs.);* 

I  lb.  s=  i6  ounces  (oz.)  =  256  drams  =  768  scruples  =  7680  grains ; 

I  oz.  =    16  drams  =    48  scruples  =    480  grains  ; 

I  dram   =      3  scruples  =      30  grains  ; 

I  scruple    =      10  grains. 

B.  APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT,  FOR  DRUGS. 

I  lb.  =  12  oz.  =  96  drams  =  288  scruples  =  5760  grains; 

I  oz.  =    8  drams  =    24  scruples  =    480  grains; 

I  dram    =      3  scruples  =r      60  grains; 

I  scruple    =      20  grains. 

C  TROY  WEIGHT,  FOR  JEWELS  AND  PRECIOUS  METALS. 

z  lb.  =  12  oz.  =  24  carats  =  240  pennyweight  (dwt.)  =  5760  grains  ; 

I  oz.  =    2  carats  =    20  dvvts.  =    480  grains  ; 

I  carat   =    10  dwts.  =    240  grains  ; 

I  dwt.  =      j>4  grains. 

II.  Pleasures. 

A.  LINEAR. 

I  mile  =  8  furlongs  (frigs.)  =  80  chains  =  320  rods  =  528a  feet ;+ 
z  furlong  =  10  chains  =    40  rods  =    660  feet ; 

I  chain    =      4  rods  =      66  feet ; 

I  rod    =      i6Jfeet; 
I  chain  =  100  links  ; 

I  linl£  =  7.92  inches  ; 
I  3rard  =  3  feet  =  36  inches ; 
I  foot  =  12  inches. 

B.  SURFACE. 
I  square  mile  ==  640  acres ; 

I  acre  =  10  square  chains  =  160  sq.  rods  =  4840  sq.  yds, 
=  43,560  square  feet. 

*  I  long  ton  =  20  imperial  hundredweights  (cwt  )  =  22.^0  pounds. 
t  I  sea  mile  (Admiralty  knot)  =  6080  feet,  or  1.15T5  statute  milg, 


350  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

C.  CAPACITY. 

I.    DRY    MEASURE. 

I  bushel  =  the  volume  of  77.627  lbs.  of  distilled  water  at  4°C.; 

t  bushel  =.  4  pecks  =  8  gallons  =  32  quarts  =  2150.4  cubic  inches; 

1  peck    =  2  gallons  =    8  quarts  =    537.6      **         " 

I  gallon     =    4  quarts  =    268,8      "         " 

I  quart   =      67.2      '*         ** 

2.    LIQUID   MEASURE, 
t  gallon  =  the  volume  of  8.3383822  lbs.  =  58,373  troy  grains  of  distilled 

water  at  4°  C.;* 
I  gallon  =  4  quarts  =  8  pints  =  32  gills  =  231  cubic  inches; 
I  quart    =  2  pints  =    8  gills  =    57.75  "  " 

1  pint    =    4  gills  =    28.88  "  " 

Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures. 

I.  LINEAR   MEASURES. 
I  meter  (m)  =  10  decimeters  (dm)=  100  centimeters  (cm)  =  1000  millimeter 
(mmi  =  .1  decameters  (Dm)  =  ,01  Hectometer  (Hm)  =  .001  Kilometei 
(Km)  =  .0001  Myriameter  (Mm), 

I  Mm  =  10  Km  =  100  Hm  =  1000  Dm  =  10,000  m; 
I  Km  =    10  Hm  =    100  Dm  =    1,000  m; 
I  Hm  =      10  Dm  =       100  m; 
I  Dm  =        so  m ; 
t  m  =  10  dm  =:  100  cm  =r  1000  mm  ; 
I  dm  =    10  cm  =    100  mm; 
I  cm  =      10  mm. 

2,  SURFACE  MEASURES. 
I  Are  (a)  =  100  square  meters  (sq.  m,)  =  .01  hectare  (ha) ; 
I  Are  =  I  sq.  Dm.  =  100  square  m  ; 
I  sq.  Km  =  100  H;i  =  10,000  A  =  1,000.000  sq.  m  ; 
1  Ha  =       100  A  —       10,000  sq.  m  ; 
1  A  =  100  sq,  m. 

3.  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 
1  liter  (1)  =  I  cubic  decimeter  (cdm)  =  1,000  cubic  centimeters  (c.  c.)  =• 
o.ooi  cubic  meter  (cbm)  =  10  deciliters  (dl)  =  100  centiliters  (ci)  =  .01 
hectoliter  (hi). 

I  HI  =  10  Dl  =  100  I  =  1,000  dl  =r  10,000  cl ; 

I  Dl  =    10  1  =     100  dl  =    1,000  cl ; 

I  1  =       10  dl  =       100  cL 

4.  WEIGHTS. 

X  kilogram  (kg)  =  100  decagrams  (Dg)  =  1000  grams  (g); 

I  gram  =  10  decigrams  (ag;  =  100  centigrams  (cg)=  1,000  mJlliprams  (mg); 

I  ton  =  1000  Kg  =  100,000  Dg  =  1,000,000  g ; 

100  Kg  =    10,000  Dg  =      100,000  g  ; 

1  Kg  =        100  D^  =  1,000  g, 

■■■  I  Lnperi^l  gallon  =  277.274  cub,  inches,  or  ,16046  tub  fooi ;  it  cqu.i.s 
I  200:52,  nr  vfTv  nearly  i^  I',  S,  liquid  gallons,  i  cub,  foot  =  1728  cu'>, 
inci.cs  -•=  7.48  U.  S.  liquid  f,'allons  =  6,43  U,  S.  dry  gal.ons  =  6.2^  lin(ieri..| 
i;.. lions. 


WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES. 


351 


Conversion  of  U.  S.  Weights  and  Measures  to  Metric, 
and  vice  versa. 


Inches  to 

Millimeters. 
I  =    25.4001 

Meter  to 

Inches. 

I  =    39-3700 


LINEAR. 
Feet  to  Meters.     Yards  to  Meters. 
.3048  .9144 

Meter  to  Feet.       Meter  to  Yards. 
3.2808  1.0936 


Miles  to 

Kilometers. 

1.6094 

Kilometer  to 
Miles. 
.6214 


SQUARE. 


Sq. Inches  to 
Sq.  Centmr. 
1  =      6.452 

Sq.  Centime. 
to  sq.  in. 
1=       .1550 


Sq.  Feet  to  Sq. 

Decimeters. 

9.290 

Sq.  Meters 

to  Sq.  Feet. 

10.764 


Square  Yards  to 

Square  Meters. 

.836 

Square  Meters 

to  Square  Yards. 

i.ig6 


Acres  to 

Hectares. 

.4047 

Hectares  to 
Acres. 
2.471 


CUBIC. 


Cubic  In.  to 
Cu.  Centmr. 
1=    16,387 

Cu.  Centmrs 
to  Cubic  In. 
1  =       .0610 


Cubic  Feet  to 

Cubic  Meters. 
.0283 

Cu.  Decimeters 
to  Cubic  Inches. 
61.023 


Cubic  Yards  to 

Cubic  Meters. 

.765 

Cubic  Meters  to 
Cubic  Feet. 

35.314 


Bushels  to 

Hectoliters. 

.3524 

Cubic  Meters  to 

Cubic  Yards. 

1.308 


CAPACITY. 
Fluid  Drams    15.1  „;j  r»„.,^.=c  ♦« 
'°SeteS"''"  Cubl?CentimeJe°r.  Qu-ts  to  Liters.  Gallons  to  Liters. 


I  =     3-70 


29-57 


.9464 


3.7854 


^meters"lo        Centiliters  to 
Fluid  D?ams.    Fluid  Ounces. 


I  = 


.27 


.338 


Liters       Decaliters  to     Hectoliters 
to  Quarts.       Gallons.         to  Bushels. 

2.8377 


1.0567     2.6417 


Grains  to 
Milligrams. 

I  =   64.7989 

Milligframs 
to  Grains. 
I  =       .01543 

Oirintals  to 
Pounds  Av. 
I  =      220.46 


WEIGHT. 

Avoirdupois         pf^ri'^I^P^'l 
Ounces  to  Grams,     ^""orlms 
28.3495  .4536 

Kilograms  to         Hectograms  to 
Grains.  Ounces  Av. 

15432.36  3-5274 

Milliers  or  Tonnes 

to  Pounds  Av. 

2204.6 


Troy  Ounces 
to  Grams. 
31.1035 


Kilograms  to 

Pounds  Av. 

2.2046 

Kilograms  to 

Ounces  Troy. 

32.1507 


352 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


KILOGRA3IS   CONVERTED  INTO   POUNDS 
AVOIRDUPOIS. 


Kilos. 

o 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

o.o 

.ooo 

.022 

.044 

.066 

.088 

.  no 

.132 

•154 

.176 

.194 

I 

.220 

•243 

.205 

.287 

•309 

•331 

•353 

•375 

•397 

.419 

2 

.441 

■463 

.485 

-507 

•529 

•551 

.573 

•595 

.617 

-039 

^ 

.661 

.6S3 

•705 

.728 

■750 

.772 

•794 

.816 

.838 

.860 

4    ■ 

.882 

.904 

.926 

.94« 

.970 

•992 

1.014 

1.036 

1.058 

1.080 

5 

I  .102 

1.124 

1.14b 

1.168 

1.190 

1.213 

1-235 

1-257 

T.279 

1-301 

6 

1-323 

1-345 

1-367 

1-389 

1.411 

1-433 

1-455 

1-477 

1.499 

1.521 

7 

1-543 

i.sbs 

1.587 

1 .609 

1.631 

1.6SS 

1.676 

i.6q8 

1.720 

1.742 

8 

1.764 

1.786 

1.808 

i.Sso 

1.852 

1.874 

1.896 

1.918 

1.940 

1.962 

9 

I   9«4 

2.006 

2.028 

2.050 

2.072 

2.094 

2.116 

2.138 

2.161 

2183 

POUNDS   CONVERTED   INTO   KILOGRAMS. 


Pounds. 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

0.0 

.000 

.005 

.009 

.014 

.018 

.023 

027 

032 

036 

.041 

I 

•045 

.050 

•054 

•059 

.064 

.068 

073 

077 

082 

.086 

2 

.091 

-095 

.100 

.104 

.109 

-113 

118 

122 

127 

132 

3 

.13b 

.141 

•145 

.150 

-154 

•159 

163 

168 

172 

.177 

4 

.181 

.186 

.191 

.195 

.200 

.204 

209 

213 

218 

.222 

5 

.227 

.231 

.236 

.240 

-245 

.249 

254 

259 

263 

.268 

6 

.272 

-277 

.281 

.286 

.290 

-295 

299 

304 

308 

•313 

7 

.318 

.322 

•327 

•331 

.33b 

.340 

345 

349 

354 

-358 

8 

•363 

■3^7 

•371 

•376 

.381 

.386 

390 

395 

399 

.404 

•9 

.408 

-413 

.417 

.422 

.42b 

■431 

435 

440 

445 

-449 

INCHES   REDUCED   TO   DECIMALS   OF   A   FOOT. 

(Trautwine.) 


Ins. 

Foot. 

Ins. 

Foot. 

Ins.      F 

'cot. 

Ins. 
6 

Foot. 

.5000 

Ins. 

Foot. 

T,\ 

.0026 

•0833 

2 

1667 

10 

-8333 

i^ 

.0052 

il4 

.0938 

2^ 

2083 

6^ 

•5417 

10I4 

-8750 

^ 

.0104 

1% 

.1042 

3 

2500 

7 

•5833 

11 

.9167 

i 

.0208 

.1146 

3Vz 

2917 

7^ 

.6250 

iiK^ 

-9583 

.0313 

i\i 

.1250 

4 

3333 

8 

.6667 

12 

I. 0000 

^ 

.0417 

1^ 

•1354 

aV. 

3750 

8|/2 

.7083 

% 

.0521 

iM 

.1458 

5 

4167 

9 

.7500 

H 

.0625 

1% 

•1563 

5^ 

4583 

9^ 

.7917 

% 

.0729 

OUNCES  REDUCED  TO  DECIMALS  OF  A  POUND. 


.06  lb, 

-13 

.19 

-25 

•31 


9  oz.  = 


,56  lb. 
.63  " 
.69  " 
•75 


WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES.  353 

WEIGHT    AND    MEASURE    CONVERSION   TABLE. 


o2 

S2« 

c«- 

« 

^t3 

5^ 

0 

0  «J 

^i 

°  0 

£S 

i 

c 

==  0 

2.^ 

1^ 

-  s 

1^ 

2.  0 

3 

to  J 

I 

25-4 

•0394 

•30s 

3.28 

1.609 

.621 

.868 

I -153 

2 

50.8 

.0787 

.610 

6.56 

3.219 

1.243 

1-735 

2.306 

3 

76.2 

.1181 

.914 

9.84 

4.828 

1.864 

2  603 

3-458 

4 

101.6 

•1575 

1. 219 

13.12 

6-437 

2.486 

3-47° 

4. 611 

5 

127.0 

.1969 

1.524 

16.40 

8.047 

3  •107 

4-338 

5-764 

6 

152.4 

.2362 

1.829 

19.69 

9.656 

3-728 

5-205 

6.917 

7 

I77-S 

.2756 

2-134 

22.97 

11.265 

4 -.350 

6.073 

8.070 

8 

20^.2 

•3150 

2.438 

26  25 

12.875 

4.971 

6.940 

9.222 

9 

228.6 

.3543 

2-743 

29-53 

14.484 

5-593 

7.808 

10.375 

. 

■ij 

0  tn' 

tr.  <-• 

« 

ui 

0  b 

*J   w 

0  <u 

V  *' 

fetlH 

u    • 

8^ 

^fe 

1= 

^6- 

22 

Si^ 

b.S 

.  3 

4>  ti 

~  3 

cca 

.  cr 

cr2 

bW 

)^< 

3  3 

=  ^ 

an: 

^2 

CAl 

^ 

<5 

ts 

UU 

u2 

m 

m 

.0929 

10.76 

.405 

2-47 

.028 

35-3 

•35 

2.84 

.1858 

2^-53 

.809 

4-94 

-057 

70.6 

.70 

5-68 

.2787 

32.29 

1.214 

^io 

.085 

105.9 

1.06 

8.51 

.3716 

43.06 

1. 619 

9.88 

•"3 

141-3 

1. 41 

"•35 

-4645 

53.82 

2.024 

12.36 

.142 

176.6 

1.76 

14.19 

•5574 

64.58 

2.428 

14.83 

.170 

211. 9 

2. II 

17-03 

.6503 

75.35 

2-833 

17.30 

.198 

247.2 

2.47 

19.86 

8 

.7432 

86.11 

3-238 

19-77 

.226 

282.5 

2.82 

22.70 

9 

.8361 

96.88 

3-642 

22.24 

-255 

317-8 

3-17 

25-54 

0 

•a 

0 
•0  J 

3 

0 

JO 

^3 

-J 

0 

tfi  ,tn 

rt2 

oi 

11 

2„- 
3O 

2  <«' 

30h 

fc 

u 

a 

■j 

0 

J 

0 

0 

I 

29.6 

-338 

-05 

1.06 

3-79 

.26 

28.3 

.063 

2 

59-1 

.676 

1.89 

2. II 

7-57 

-53 

56.7 

.125 

3 

88.7 

1.014 

2.84 

3-17 

11.36 

-79 

85.1 

.188 

4 

118.3 

1-352 

3-79 

4.23 

15-14 

1.06 

113-4 

.250 

5 

147.9 

1 .690 

4-73 

5.28 

18.92 

1.32 

141. 8 

.313 

6 

177-4 

2.028 

5-68 

6-34 

22.71 

1-59 

170. 1 

.375 

7 

207,0 

2.366 

6.62 

7-40 

26.50 

1.85 

198.5 

-438 

8 

236.6 

2.704 

7-57 

8.45 

30.28 

2. II 

226.8 

.500 

9 

266.  T 

3.042 

8.52 

9-51 

34-07 

2.38 

255-1 

.563 

354 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


TABLE    OF    RECIPROCALS    OF    NUMBERS. 

The  reciprocal  of  a  number  is  the  quantity  obtained  by- 
dividing  one  by  that  number. 


No. 

Recip- 
rocal. 

No. 

Recip- 
rocal. 

No. 

Recip- 
rocal. 

No. 

Recip- 
rocal. 

I 

I. 00000 

26 

.03846 

51 

.otg6i 

76 

.01316 

2 

0.50000 

27 

.03704 

52 

•01923 

77 

.01299 

3 

•33333 

28 

•03571 

53 

.018S7 

78 

.01282 

4 

.25000 

29 

•03448 

54 

.01852 

79 

.01266 

5 

.20000 

30 

•03333 

55 

.01818 

80 

.01250 

6 

. 16667 

31 

.03226 

56 

.01786 

81 

.01235 

7 

.14286 

32 

.03125 

57 

.01754 

82 

.01220 

8 

.12500 

33 

.03030 

58 

.01724 

83 

.01205 

9 

.mil 

34 

.02941 

59 

.01695 

84 

.01190 

lO 

.10000 

35 

.02857 

60 

.01667 

85 

.01176 

II 

,09091 

36 

.02778 

61 

•01639 

86 

.01163 

12 

.08333 

37 

.02703 

62 

.01613 

87 

.01149 

13 

.07692 

38 

.02632 

63 

.01587 

88 

.01136 

14 

•07143 

39 

.02564 

64 

.01563 

89 

.01124 

15 

.06667 

40 

.02500 

65 

•01538 

90 

.01111 

16 

.06250 

41 

•02439 

66 

.01515 

91 

.01099 

17 

.05882 

42 

.02381 

67 

.01493 

92 

.01087 

18 

•05556 

43 

.02326 

68 

.01471 

93 

.01075 

19 

.05263 

44 

.02273 

69 

.01449 

94 

.01064 

20 

.05000 

45 

.02222 

70 

.01429 

95 

.01053 

21 

.04762 

46 

.02174 

71 

.01408 

96 

.01042 

22 

•0454s 

47 

.02128 

72 

.01389 

97 

.01031 

23 

.04348 

48 

.02083 

73 

.01370 

98 

.01020 

24 

.04167 

49 

.02041 

74 

.01351 

99 

.01010 

25 

.04000 

50 

.02000 

75 

.01333 

100 

.01000 

WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


35f. 


COMPARISONS  OF  FAHRENHEIT,  CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS),  AND  REAUMUR  THERMOMETER 
SCALES. 


Fahren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

Fahren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

+212 

-fioo 

+80 

+158 

+70 

+56 

211 

99.44 

79.56 

157 

69.44 

55  56 

2IO 

98.89 

79.11 

156 

68.89 

55." 

209 

98.33 

78.67 

155 

68.33 

54-67 

208 

97.78 

78.22 

154 

67.78 

54-22 

207 

97.22 

77.78 

153 

67.22 

53.78 

206 

96.67 

77-33 

152 

66.67 

53.33 

205 

96.11 

76.89 

151 

66.11 

52.89 

204 

95-55 

76.44 

150 

65-55 

52.44 

203 

95 

76 

149 

65 

52 

202 

94.44 

75.56 

14S 

64.44 

51-56 

201 

93  89 

75-11 

147 

63-89 

51." 

200 

93  33 

74.67 

146 

6333 

50.67 

199 

92.78 

74.22 

145 

62.78 

50-22 

198 

92.22 

73.78 

144 

62.22 

49-78 

197 

91.67 

73-33 

143 

61.67 

49.33 

196 

91. II 

72.89 

142 

61. II 

48.89 

195 

90-55 

72.44 

141 

60.55 

48.44 

194 

90 

72 

140 

60 

48 

193 

89.44 

71-56 

139 

59-44 

47.56 

192 

88.89 

71. II 

138 

58-89 

47.11 

iqi 

88.33 

70.67 

137 

58-33 

46.67 

190 

87-78 

70.22 

136 

57  73 

46.22 

189 

87.22 

69.78 

135 

57.22 

45.78 

188 

86.67 

69-33 

134 

56.67 

45-33 

187 

86.11 

68.89 

133 

56.11 

44.89 

186 

85.55 

68.44 

132 

55-55 

44.44 

185 

85 

68 

131 

55 

44 

184 

84.44 

67.56 

130 

54-44 

43.56 

183 

83.89 

67.11 

129 

53-89 

43." 

182 

83-33 

66.67 

128 

53-33 

42.67 

181 

82.78 

66.22 

127 

52-78 

42.22 

180 

82.22 

65.78 

126 

52.22 

41.78 

179 

81.67 

65-33 

125 

51.67 

41.33 

178 

81. II 

64.89 

124 

51. II 

40.89 

177 

80.55 

64.44 

123 

50-55 

40.44 

176 

80 

64 

122 

50 

40 

175 

79-44 

63-56 

121 

49-44 

39  56 

174 

78.89 

63-11 

120 

48.89 

39." 

173 

78.33 

62.67 

119 

48-33 

38.67 

172 

77.78 

62.22 

118 

47.78 

38-22 

171 

77.22 

61.78 

117 

47.22 

37.78 

170 

76.67 

61-33 

116 

46.67 

37.33 

169 

76.11 

60.89 

115 

46. 11 

36.89 

168 

75-55 

60.44 

114 

45 -.55 

36.44 

167 

75 

60 

"3 

45 

36 

166 

74-44 

59-56 

1X2 

44.44 

35  56 

165 

73  89 

59-11 

III 

43.89 

35-11 

164 

72-33 

58.67 

no 

43-33 

34.67 

163 

72.78 

58.22 

109 

42.78 

34.22 

162 

71.22 

57-78 

108 

42.22 

33.78 

161 

71.67 

57-33 

107 

41.67 

33.33 

160 

71.11 

56-89 

106 

41. II 

32.89 

159 

70-55 

56.44 

105 

40.55 

32.44 

356 


GENERAL   TOPTCS- 


C03IPARIS0NS  OF  FAHRENHEIT,  CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS),  AND  REAUMUR  THERMOMETER 
SCALES. — Continued. 


Fahren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Rdaumur. 

Fah'-en- 
heii. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Rdaumur. 

-fi04 

+.0 

+3=    ^ 

+50 

4-10 

+8 

103 

39-44 

31.. 56 

49 

y-44 

7.56 

102 

38.89 

31. II 

48 

8.89 

7. II 

lOI 

38.33 

30.67 

47 

8.33 

6.67 

100 

37.78 

30.22 

46 

7.78 

6.22 

99 

37.22 

29.78 

45 

7.22 

5-78 

98 

36.67 

29.33 

44 

6.67 

5-33 

97 

36.11 

28.89 

43 

6. II 

4-89 

96 

35-55 

28.44 

42 

5. 55 

4-44 

95 

35 

28 

41 

5 

4 

94 

34-44 

27. s6 

40 

4.44 

3.56 

93 

33-89 

27.11 

39 

3-89 

3-11 

92 

33-33 

26.67 

38 

3-33 

2.67 

91 

32-78 

26.22 

37 

2.78 

2.22 

90 

32.22 

25.78 

36 

2.22 

1.78 

89 

31-67 

25.33 

35 

1.67 

^•§3 

88 

31. II 

24.89 

34 

I. II 

0.89 

ll 

30-55 

24.44 

33 

0.55 

0.44 

86 

30 

"^^    , 

32 

0 

0 

85 

29-44 

23.56 

31 

-0.55 

-0.44 

84 

28.89 

23.11 

30 

1. 11 

0.89 

83 

28-33 

22.67 

29 

1.67 

i.:3 

C2 

27.78 

22.22 

28 

2.22 

1.78 

81 

27  22 

21.78 

27 

2.78 

2.22 

80 

26.67 

21.33 

26 

3-33 

2.67 

7f 

26.11 

20.89 

25 

3-89 

3'5 

78 

25-55 

20.44 

^4 

4.44 

3-56 

77 

25 

20 

23 

5 

4 

76 

24-44 

19.56 

22 

5.55 

4.44 

75 

23.89 

19. II 

21 

6.11 

4.89 

74 

23.33 

18.67 

20 

6.67 

Vi 

73 

22.78 

18.22 

19 

7.22 

72 

22.22 

17.78 

18 

7.78 

6.22 

71 

21.67 

17.33 

17 

8.33 

6.67 

70 

21. II 

16.89 

16 

8.89 

7.11 

69 

20.55 

16.44 

15 

9.44 

7-56 

68 

20 

16 

14 

10 

8 

67 

19.44 

15-56 

13 

10.55 

8.44 

66 

18.89 

15. II 

12 

II. II 

8.89 

65 

18.33 

14.67 

11 

11.67 

9-33 

64 

17.78 

14.22 

10 

12.22 

9-78 

63 

17.22 

13.78 

9 

12.78 

10.22 

62 

16.67 

13-33 

8 

13.33 

10.67 

61 

16. II 

12.89 

7 

13.89 

11. II 

60 

15-55 

12.44 

6 

14.44 

11.56 

^l 

15 

12 

5 

15.00 

12 

58 

14.44 

11.56 

4 

15.55 

12.44 

57 

13.89 

11. II 

3 

16. II 

12.89 

56 

13.33 

10.67 

2 

16.67 

13-33 

55 

12.78 

10.22 

I 

17.22 

13.78 

54 

12.22 

9.78 

0 

17.78 

14.22 

53 

11.67 

9.33 

—  1 

18.33 

14.67 

52 

II. II 

8.89 

2 

18.89 

15.11 

SI 

10.55 

8.44 

3 

19.44 

15.56 

WEIGHTS   A>7D    MEASURES. 


COMPARISONS    OF    FAHRENHEIT,    CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS),    AND     REAUMUR    THERMOMETER 


Fahren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

F  ,hren- 
hcit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

—4 

—20 

-16 

-23 

-30-55 

-24.44 

5 

20.55 

16.44 

24 

31. II 

24.89 

6 

21. II 

16.89 

25 

31  67 

25-33 

7 

21.67 

17-33 

26 

32.22 

25.73 

8 

22.22 

17.78 

27 

32.78 

26.22 

9 

22.78 

18.22 

28 

33.33 

26.67 

lO 

23-33 

18.67 

29 

33-^9 

27.11 

II 

23.89 

19. II 

30 

34-<t 

27.56 

12 

24.44 

19.56 

31 

35 

28 

3 

25 

20 

32 

35-55 

28.44 

14 

25-55 

20.44 

33 

36.11 

28.89 

15 

26.11 

20.89 

34 

,6.67 

29 -33 

16 

26.67 

21.33 

35 

37.22 

29.78 

17 

27.22 

21.78 

36 

37-73 

30.22 

18 

27.78 

22.22 

37 

38-3:^ 

30.67 

19 

28.33 

22.67 

38 

38.89 

31. II 

20 

28.89 

23.11 

39 

39-44 

01,56 

21 

29.44 

23-56 

40 

40 

32.00 

22 

30 

24 

Formula  for  Converting  Degrees  Centigrade  to  Fahrenheit,  and 
vice  versa : 


«°C.  =  (2f-f32)*F.; 


For  Degrees  Re'atimzir,  substitute  4  for  the  figure  5  in  the 
preceding  formulas. 


358 


GENERAL    TOPICS. 


GOVEllXMKXT   LAND   3IEASLRES. 

In  the  system  of  government  survey,  lines  running  north 
and  south  are  drawn  parallel  to  a  fixed  line  (principal  me- 
ridian) at  a  distance  of  six  miles  apart  ;  these  are  called 
range  lines.  At  right  angles  with  these,  other  parallel  lines 
{town  lines)  are  drawn,  which  then  run  east  and  west.  The 
two  sets  of  lines  form  squares  containing  36  square  miles 
each,  called  townships.  A  certain  number  of  townships 
form  a  county.  Each  square  mile  of  a  township  is  called  a 
section,  containing  640  acres,  and  these  are  numbered  regu- 
larly I  to  36,  commencing  at  the  northeast  corner,  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  diagram.  Section  16  in  each  township 
is  set  apart  for  school  purposes. 

Sections  are  divided  by  lines  running  north  and  south, 
and  east  and  west,  into  quarter  sections,  designated  as  the 
northeast  quarter,  northwest  quarter,  southwest  quarter, 
and  south-east  quarter  of  the  section.  These  quarters  con- 
tain 160  acres  of  land  each,  and  are  again  divided  into 
quarters,  each  containing  forty  acres,  which  is  the  smallest 
sub-division  recognized  in  government  survey.  Lands  are 
usually  sold  in  tracts  of  forty  acres,  or  a  multiple  thereof, 
except  in  case  of  land  bordering  on  lakes,  which  are  frac- 
tional sections  and  may  contain  more  or  less  than  forty 
acres.     These  are  caWed  government  lots. 


TOWNSHIP. 

SECTION. 

6 
7 

18 
19 

5 
8 

17 
20 
29 
32 

4 
9 
16 
21 
28 
33 

3 
10 

15 
22 
27 
34 

2 



II 

14 
23 

I 
12 

^3 
24 
25 
36 

N.  W. 
Quarter. 

NW14 

of 
NEM 

NE14 
of 

NEM 

SW^ 
of 

NE^ 

SE14 
of 

NEM 

S.  W. 
Quarter. 

30 
31 

26 
35 

S. 
Qua 

E. 
rter. 

The  description  of  a  40-acre  lot  would  then,  for  example, 
read  as  follows  :  The  northeast  quarter  of  the  northeast 
quarter  of  section  i  in  township  24  north,  range  7  west. 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES,  350 

TO  MEASURE  CORN  ON  THE  COB  IN  CRJBS. 

(Waring.) 

When  the  Crib  is  Equilateral. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  in  inches  by  the  breadth  in 
inches,  and  that  again  by  the  height  in  inches,  and  divide  the 
product  by  2748  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  heaped  bushel), 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  bushels  of  ears.  Take 
two  thirds  of  the  quotient  for  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled 
corn. 

Example. — Required  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn 
contained  in  a  crib  of  ears,  15  ft.  long  by  5  ft.  wide  and  10  ft. 
high. 

Solution:  180  in.  (length)  X  60  in.  (width)  X  120  in.  (height) 
=  1,296,000  -f-  2748  =  471.6  heaped  bushels,  two  thirds  of  which 
is  314.6  bushels,  shelled. 

When  the  Crib  is  Flared  at  the  Sides. 

Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  top  and  bottom  widths  in  inches 
by  the  perpendicular  height  in  inches,  and  that  again  by  the 
length  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  2748;  the  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  heaped  bushels  of  ears.  Take  two 
thirds  of  the  quotient  for  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 

RECKONING    OF   AMOUNT   AND  VAX.UE   OF   HAY. 

Four  hundred  cubic  feet  of  hay  is  roughly  estimated  as  a 
ton,  but  there  is  great  variation  in  the  ratio  of  weight  to 
volume,  dependent  upon  the  kind  of  hay,  time  of  cutting, 
and  treatment  in  storing.  In  general,  the  finer  the  stalk  of 
the  plant  the  heavier  the  hay  ;  also,  of  course,  the  more 
closely  packed  in  putting  away,  and  the  nearer  the  bottom 
of  the  mow  the  heavier.  Grass  allowed  to  stand  till  nearly 
ripe  before  cutting  will  be  the  lighter. 

In  estimating  by  measurement,  multiply  together  the  fig- 
ures representing  the  length,  width,  and  height  of  hay,  and 
divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  feet  in  a  ton.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  hay  is  40  ft.  long,  16  ft.  wide,  and  18  ft.  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  mow,  and  the  bulk  agreed  is 
400  cub.  ft.  to   the  ton,  the  mow  will  contain  40  X  16  X  18, 


;^60  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

Table  for  Findiiijif  the  Value  of  Hay. 


50 
70 
90 
100 
300 
400 
500 
700 
900 
1000 
1200 
1500 

i6co 
1700 
1800 
1900 
2000 


$12 


0.42 
0-54 
0.60 
1.80 
2.40 
3.00 
4.20 
540 
6.00 
7.20 
9.00 
9.60 
10.20 
10.80 
11.40 
12.00 


$13 


0-33 
0.46 

0.59 

0.65 

1-95 

2.60 

3-25 

4-55 

5.85 

6.50 

7.80 

9-75 

10.40 

II. OS 

11.70 

12-35 

13.00 


0.35 
0.49 
0.63 
0.70 


3-50 
4.90 
6.30 
7.00 
8.40 
10.50 
11.20 


13-30 
14.00 


0.38 
0-53 
0.68 
0.75 
2.25 
3.00 
3-75 


[1. 25 

[2. 00 

'2.7s 
'3-50 
'4-25 

rs.oo 


$16 


0.40 
0.56 
0.72 
0.80 
2.40 
3.20 
4.00 
5.60 
7.20 
8.00 
g.6o 
12.00 
12.80 
13.60 
14.40 
15.20 

16.  CO 


*.7 

S18 

0.4, 

0.45 

0.60 

0.63 

0.77 

0.81 

0.85 

0.90 

2.55 

2.70 

340 

3.60 

4-25 

4.50 

5  95 

6.30 

7.65 

8.10 

8.50 

9.00 

10.20 

10. 8o 

12.75 

13  50 

13.60 

14.40 

14.45 

15-30 

^5-30 

16.20 

16.15 

17.10 

17.00 

18.00 

WEIGHTS   AKD   MEASURES.  36l 

which  equals  11,520  cub.  ft.;  11,520  divided  by  400  equals 
28  tons  and  320  cub.  ft.,  or  28f  tons.  The  table  on  page  360 
is  from  the  American  Agriculturist  annual. 

The  price  per  ton  of  2000  lbs.  being  known,  it  is  easy  to 
find  the  value  of  any  fraction  of  a  ton  at  $4  to  $18  per  ton. 
If  a  farmer  has  1565  lbs  of  hay  on  his  wagon,  and  the  dealer 
has  bought  it  at  $7  per  ton,  he  finds  by  looking  across  the 
table  from  1500  lbs.  to  the  column  at  the  top  of  which  is  $7, 
that  the  value  of  1500  lbs.  at  $7  is  $5.25,  the  value  of  60 lbs. 
21  cents,  and  the  value  of  5  lbs.  2  cents,  making  a  total  of 
$5.48. 

To  find  the  value  of  any  fraction  of  a  ton  at  $7.40,  $7.60, 
$7.80,  etc.,  find  the  value  at  $7  and  add  to  it  one  tenth  the 
value  at  $4,  $6,  $8,  etc. 

STRENGTH    OF   ROPES. 

Hemp  rope,  i  in.  in  circumference,  is  calculated  to  sus- 
tain a  weight  of  200  lbs.;  i\  in.,  450  lbs.;  2  in.,  800  ?bs.; 
i\  in.,  1250  lbs.;  3  in.,  1800  lbs.;  4  in.,  3200  lbs.;  5  in.,  5000 
lbs.;  6  in.,  7200  lbs.  Hemp  is  considered  twice  as  strong 
as  manila,  and  wire  rope  twice  as  strong  as  hemp.  (  Year- 
book U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

The  diameters  corresponding  to  the  circumferences  given 
are,  in  the  preceding  order:  .318,  .477,  .636,  .795,  .955, 
1.27,  1.59,  and  1. 91  inches. 


362 


GENERAL  TOPICS. 


LEGAL.   WEIGHTS   OF   GRAIN,   SEEDS,  ETC, 

The  table  shows  the  number  of  pounds  per  bushel  re- 
quired by  law  or  custom,  in  the  sale  of  articles  specified,  in 
the  several  States  of  the  Union. 


States. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island.  

Connecticut „   ..... 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania. 

Delaware 

Maryland. . . .' 

District  of  Columbia . . , 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida.. 

Alabama 

Mississippi , 

Louisiana 

Texas , 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Ohio  

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri , 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

South  Dakota 

North  Dakota 

Montana 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Washington 

California 

Ore^n 

Oklahoma 


t/3,S 


u  u 


561  50 
56, 50 
56'... 

561  50 
56!  50 
56,  50 

58... 
56!... 
56 1 48 
56  48 


56148 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 1  50 


60 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


363 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY   OF    VARIOUS    SUBSTANCES 

(Trautwinh.) 


Aluminum 

Anthracite,  i. 3-1. 84,  usually 

"  broken,  of  any  size,  loose 

(A  ton,  loose,  averages  from  40  to  43  cubic  feet.) 
Ash,  American  white,  dry 

"  "■  "       perfectly  dry 

Asphaltum,  1-1.8 

Boxwood,  dry 

Brass  (copper  and  zinc)  cast,  7.8-8.4 

Bronze  (copper  8  parts,  tin  i  part,  gun  metal),  G.4- 
8.6 

Cement,  English  Portland 

Charcoal,  of  pines  and  oaks 

Cherry,  perfectly  dry 

Chestnut,  perfectly  dry  

Coal,  bituminous  1.2-1.5 

broken,  of  any  size,  loose 

(A  ton  occupies  from  43  to  48  cubic  feet.) 

Copper,  cast,  8.6-8.8 

Cork     ,.  

Coke,  loose,  of  good  coal 

vA  ton  occupies  80  to  97  cubic  feet.) 

Elm,  perfectly  dry 

Fat 

Glass,  2.5-3.45 

Gold,  cast,  pure 

Gravel,  about  the  same  as  sand,  which  see. 

Hemlock,  perfectly  dry 

Hickory,  perfectly  dry 

Ice,  .gi7-.922 

India  rubber 

Iron,  cast,  6.9-7,4. ° 

Lard 

Lead,  ii.38-ii..i7 

Lime, quick  ... 

"  "  ground  loose,  ^er  struck  bu.  62-72  lbs.. 
Limestone  and  marbles 

Mahogauy,  S,  ,anish,  dry 

Maple,  dry . . '. 

Mercury,  at  6o*>  F 

Oak,  white,  perfs-tly  dry,  .66-.88 


Average 
Specific 
Gravity. 


Average 
Weight  01 
I  cu,  foot, 
in  Pounds. 


2.6 
15 

.61 
•752 
1-4 

.96 
8.1 

8-5 


.672 
.66 


8.7 
■25 


.56 
.93 

19.258 


162. 
93-5 
52-56 

38. 
47- 
83-3 

60. 
504- 

529- 

81-103 

J  5  10 

42. 

41. 

84. 

47-52 

542. 

I5-J 
23-32 


S1204. 


.4 

.85 

25. 

53- 

.92 
.93 

7-15 

57-4 
58. 
446. 

x-5 

59-3 
709.6 
95- 

2.6 

164.4 

.85 
13-58 

S3- 

48- 


364 


GENERAL  TOPICS. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES.— 

Contimied. 


Oak,  red,  black,  etc. 

"    live,  .88-1.02... 

Oils,  olive,  whale... 

Peat 


Petroleum 

Pin(i,  white,  perfectly  dry,   35-.4S.. 

"     vellow,  Northern,  .48  to  .62.. 

"           "       Southern,  .64-. 80.  ... 
Platinum,  21-22 


Quartz  common,  pure,  2.64-2.67. 
Rosin 


Salt,  coarse,  per  struck  bu.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  56  lbs. 
Sand  of  pure  quartz,  dry  and  loose,  per  struck  bu. 

1 12-133  ^t>s 

Sand  ot  pure  quartz,  wet 

Silver —  .   

Snow,  fresh  fallen 

"      moistened  and  compacted  by  rain 

Soils,  common  loam,  perfectly  dry,  loose 

Soils,  common    loam,    perfectly    dry,    moderately 

rammed 

Soils,  common  loam,  slightly  moist,  loose  

"  "  "      as  a  soft,  flowing  mud 

Spruce,  perfectly  dry 

Sulphur 

Steel,  7.7-7.9...... 

Sycamore,  perfectly  dry 

Tar 

Tin,  cast 


Walnut,  perfectly  dry 

Water,  pure  rain  or  distilled,  at  32°  F.  (barometer 

30  in-) o 

Water,  pure  rain  or  distilled  at  62°  F.  (barometer 

30  in.) " 

Water,   pure  rain  or  distilled  water  at    212**  F. 

(barometer  30  in.) 

Water,  sea,  1.026-1.030 

Wax,  bees' 


Zinc,  6.8-7.2. 


Average 
Specific 
Gravity. 


.878 
.40 
•55 
.72 

21-5 

2.65 


10.5 


•4 
2.0 
7-85 

•59 


7^35 
.61 


.028 
•97 


7.0 


Note.— Green  timbers  usually  weigh  from  one  fifth  to  nearly  one  hal! 
more  than  dry  and  ordinary  build iig  timbers  when  tolerably  seasoned; 
about  one  sixth  more  than  perfec.ly  dry. 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 


365 


bo      ? 


C  O  5 


t* 


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'So        vn 

w  c 

•08  2 

■  t    2^0 
i     i  o.i£ 

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iTTs! 

<s  -<:  <;  •,~'  < 

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vS     I 


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rt  c       G 

x-O   rt   G 

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6  o  N--^ 


"1. 


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1-  o    ,   ,  o 

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5SS 
S  11  5. 


c.§' 


a     Si2i5 


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8°  go 


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u3  G  3 

f^  OCL, 


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II  !• 


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en  >  u 


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gt^tj  tsg-otj  ccc'oc'a'a'a 

"=00  'o^'oo  "=  "«  "^  o  =«'o  o  o 

20c3  0200  22202000 

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o  o  000    O 


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366  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

FLUCTUATING   CURRENCY. 


Bolivia 

Silver 
Silver 

Silver        -j 

Silver 
Silver 
Silver 
Gold  (nominally) 
Silver 
Silver 

Silver 
Silver 

Boliviano  (=  loo  centavos) 

Peso 

Shanghai  tael 

Haikwan  tael  (customs) 

Peso 

Peso 

Rupee  (=  i6  annas) 

j         Yen  (=  loo  sens)       -j 

Dollar  (peso)  (=  loo  centa- 
vos) 
Sol  (=  loo  centesimos) 
Mahbub  (=  20  piasters) 

about 

S  .44 

•44 
.^5 
.72 
•44 
•44 

Central  America. 

China 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

India. 

Japan -j 

Mexico  . 

1. 00 
•50 
.48 

•44 

•44 

Peru 

Tripoli 

MONEY  CONVERSION  TABLE. 


"? 

Si 

4; 

C 

1? 

ri 

:; 

a 

3 

■z 

c  ^ 

<75^ 

Is- 
11 

It 

3 
< 

C 

•^ 

s 

tt- 

fc- 

0 

\t 

U 

S   4-87 

S  0.24 

$  0.19 

%  0.40 

S  0.52 

%  0.27 

$  0.20 

9-73 

.48 

39 

.80 

1.03 

■  '^\ 

.41 

14.60 

.71 

S8 

1.21 

1-55 

.80 

.61 

19.47 

•OS 

77 

1. 61 

2.06 

1.07 

.81 

24-33 

1. 19 

97 

2.01 

2.58 

1-34 

1.02 

29.20 

1.43 

16 

2.41 

3^09 

1. 61 

1.22 

7 

34-07 

1.67 

35 

2.81 

3-6i 

1.S8 

1.42 

8 

38.93 

1.90 

54 

3.22 

4.12 

2.14 

1.62 

9 

43 -80 

2.14 

74 

3.62 

4.64 

2.41 

1.83 

10 

48.67 

2.38 

03 

4.02 

5^^5 

2.68 

2.0^ 

20 

97-33 

4.76 

86 

8.04 

10.30 

5-36 

4.06 

30 

146.00 

7.14 

79 

12.06 

i5^45 

8.04 

6.09 

40 

194.66 

9^52 

72 

16.08 

20.60 

10.72 

8.12 

50 

243^33 

11.90 

65 

20.10 

25-75 

13  40 

10.15 

I(X. 

486.65 

23.80 

19 

30 

40.20 

51-50 

26.80 

20.30 

STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


367 


IV.  STATISTICAL   TABLES. 

AREA    AND    POPULATION    OF    THE    UNITED 
STATES,    1890.      (Eleventh  Census.) 


States. 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Dist.  of  Colum. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian  Ter 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. 

Michigran 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada  

N'wHampshire 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 


52,250 
113,020 

53,850 

158,360 

103,925 

4,990 

2,050 

70 

58,680 

59-475 

84,800 

56,650 

36,350 

3i,40o-j 

56,025 
82,080 
40,400 
48,720 
33.040 
12,210 
8,315 
58,915 
83,365 
46,810 

69,415 
146,080 

77,510 

110,700 

9,305 


Popula- 
tion. 


1,513,017 

59,620 

1,128,179 

1,208,130 

412,198 

746,258 

168,493 

230,392 
391,422. 

1,837,353 

84,385 

3,826,351 

2,192,404 

182,984 

58.385* 

1,911,896 

1,427,096 

T, 858.635 
1,118.587 
661,086 
1,042,390 
2,238,043 
2.093,889 
1.301,826 
1,289,600 
2,679,184 

132,159 

1,058,510 
45,761 
376,350 


States. 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 


New  Jersey.. 

New  Mexico. . 

New  York 

N.  Carolina 

N.  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.. 
Rhode  Island.. 

S.  Carolina 

S    Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington. . . 
W.  Virginia.  .. 

Vi'isconsin 

Wyoming 

Total 

Alaska 

Hawaii 

Porto  Rico 

Philippine    Isl- 
ands  

Cuba 


7,815 
122,580 
49,170 
52,250 
70,795 
41,060 
39,030 
96,030 
45,215 

1,250 
30,570 
77,650 
42,050 
265,780 
84,970 

9,565 
42.450 
69,180 
24,780 
56,040 
97,890 

3,602,990 

531,000 

6,640 
3,668 

115,300 
45,872 


Popula- 
tion. 


1,444-933 
153.S9? 

5,997,853 

1,617,947 
182,71c 

3.67:., 316 
61,834 
313,767 

5.258,014 
345.506 

1,151,149 
328,808 

1.767,518 

2,235,523 
207,905 
332.422 

1,655,980 
349,390 
762.794 

1,686,880 
60,705 

62,622,250 

30,320 
109,020 
813,927 

8,000,000 
1,631,696 


*  Indians  on  reservations  in  various  states  and  territories. 
AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  CANADA,   1891. 


Provinces 

and 
Districts. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Provinces 

and 
Districts. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova  Scotia.... 
NewBrunswick 
Manitoba 

21,950 
227,-00 
20.550 
28,100 
64,066 

2,114.321 

1,488,535 

450,396 

321,263 

152,506 

Brit. Columbia. 
Pr.  Ed.  Island. 
The  Territories 

Total.., 

382,300 

2,000 

2.371-481 

98,173 
109,078 
98,967 

3, 415,647 

4,833,239 

368 


GENERAL  TOPICS. 


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2 

A 

3 
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b 

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m  o 


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Un,  oj 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


369 


AVERAGE   AND   ACTUAIj   DATE    OP   LAST   AXD 
FIRST   KILLING    FROST. 

(U.  S.  Weather  Bureau.) 


Alabama  

Arkansas 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dist.  of  Col 

Florida    

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts  . . . 
Michijran 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Jersey  .   .  . . 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina.. 


Mobile     

Montgomery 
Little  Rock. . 
Fort  Smith.. 

Denver , 

New  Haven.. 
Washington. 
Cedar  Key. . . 
Jacksonville 

Pensacola 

Atlanta 

Augusta...    . 

Savannah 

Cairo 

Chicago 

Springfield.. . 
Indianapolis. 
Des  Moines. . 

Dubuque 

Keokuk 

Dodge  City. . 
Leavenworth 
Louisville  . .. 
New  Orleans. 
Shreveport.. . 
Portsmouth  . 

Baltimore 

Boston 

Detroit 

Grand  Haven 
Marquette.  . . 

St.  Paul 

Duluth 

Moorhead 

Vicksburg... . 

St.  Louis 

Omaha 

North  Platte. 
Atlantic  City 

Cape  May 

Santa  Fe"  . . .  . 

Albany  

Buffalo 

New  York 

Oswego 

Rochester 

Charlotte.  . . . 
Hatteras 


Feb.  24 

April  6 

Mar.  10 

April  6 

Mar.  21 

Apiil  14 

Mar.  22 

April  6 

May  2s 

June  6 

May  30 

May  30 

Apru  4 

April  20 

Feb.  4 

Mar.  12 

Feb.  24 

Mar.  27 

Mar.  7 

April  6 

Mar.  25 

May  21 

Mar.  17 

April  5 

Mar.  I 

Aprils 

Mar.  31 

May  8 

April  23 

May  25 

April  16 

May  25 

April  17 

May  21 

April  24 

May  31 

April  27 

May  23 

April  ID 

May  2 

April  22 

May  23 

April  6 

May  21 

April  8 

May  15 

Feb.  2 

Mar.  27 

Feb.  26 

Mar.  31 

April  14 

May  5 

April  6 

May  3 

May  17 
May  28 

May  2 

May  30 

May  28 

May  18 

June  II 

May  I 

May  25 

May  6 

June  8 

May  i8 

Junes 

Mar.  3 

April  22 

Mar.  31 

May  2 

April  15 
May  1 

April  6 

April  29 

April  6 

Mays 

April  22 

May  22 

April  21 

May  22 

Mav  27 

May  29 

April  14 

April  25 

April  26 

May  29 

May  3 

May  29 

April  I     [ 

May  3 

Feb.  27   1 

April  5 

370 


GENERAL    TOPICS. 


DATE   OF  last;  AND   FIRST  KILLING  FROST— 

Co7ituiued. 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


371 


'I'BJO J,         vo  li^  J)  o  00   t^ 


m  ro  ro  w  •*  ro 


O   t^oo 


■<*■  fO  ■*  -rr  N    CO 


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372  GENERAL  TOPICS. 

METEOKOLOGICAL  DATA  FOR  CANADA. 


Province  or  City. 


Ontario 

(Juebec 

\evv  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 

Prince  Edward  Island 

Manitoba 

British  Columbia 

Toronto 

Montreal 

St.  John,  N.  B 

Halifax,  N.  S 


Normal  Mean  Temperature  of  tiie  Air. 


Monthly  Temperature. 


Lowest. 


19.3' 

13-5 
16. 1 


14.7 
0.6 


22.9 
[6.8 


F. 


Highest. 


69.8° 

70.2 

62.8 

63.3 

64-3 

65-9 

72.2 

67.4 

72 .2 

59-7 

63.5 


Mean  for  the 
Year. 


43 -S" 

42.6 

39-9 

41-7 

40.5 

32.6 

48.1 

44.1 

44-3 

40-3 

43  I 


Normal  rainfall  in  inches  per  year  :  Toronto  29.42,  Windsor  23.78, 
Peterborough  20.55,  Montreal  27.26,  Quebec  19.26,  St.  John  33.27,  Halifax 
43.08,  Glace  Bay  55.49,  Sydney  49.42,  Winnipeg  16.83,  Spence'i  Bridge  3.88. 


COMPARISON  OF  LEADING   INDUSTRIES   IN   THE 
UNITED    STATES.     (U.  S.  Census  of  1890,  in  Round  Numbers  ) 


Agriculture 

Forest  products,  total 

Forest    industries,     enu- 
merated   

Forest  products,  not  enu- 
merated (estimated)    .. 
Manufactures  using  wood 

Mineral  products,  total 

Coal   

Gold  and  silver 

Iron  and  steel 

Manufactures  of  iron  and 

steel 

Leather     

Leather  manufactures 

Woolen  "  

Cotton  "  


Millions. 
15,982 


562 


543 

343 
486 
414 

S6 
102 
ii3 
297 
354 


Thousands. 
8,286 


548 


300 
57 
176 

60 
48 
186 
219 
222 


MiUions. 

Millions. 

102 

245 

294 

442 

109 

40 
96 

327 

32 

79 

25 

88 

130 
153 

77 

203 

70 

155 

Millions. 
2.460 
1,044 

446 

598 
907 
610 
160 
99 
479 

131 
178 
289 
338 
268 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


373 


ARKAS  OF  APPROPRIATED,  VACANT,  AND  RE- 
SERVED LANDS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,   1898. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


States  and 
Territories. 

Total  Area. 

Unap- 
prop. 
and  Un- 
reserved. 

Reserved 

Total 
Govern- 
ment 
Land. 

Appropri- 
ated. 

Alabama 

Arizona 

acres. 
32,658,000 
72.792,500 
33,543,500 
99,361,083 
66.390,650 
35,264,500 
52,830,200 
19,575,040 
52,383,000 
28,863,188 
36,819,000 
51,689,444 
29,685,000 
43,796,000 
95,259,720 
49,137,339 
70,336,500 
78,197,005 
44,902,987 
24,753.663 
61.626,218 
48.158,555 
52,580,000 
42,684,084 
35,275,000 
62,433,000 
579,024,029 

per  cent. 

1.60 
71.07 
11,02 
42.72 
59.81 

4.98 
83.68 

per  cent. 

.26 

21.12 

.01 

^6-35 

9.38 

.06 

3.67 

100.00 

1.89 

5-11 

.24 

9.64 

per  cent. 

1.86 

92.16 

11.03 

59-07 

69.19 

5-04 

87-35 

100.00 

3-91 

7-73 

1. 61 

20.71 

1.29 

1.02 

87.16 

21.61 

95-74 

80.45 

52.61 

57-42 

67.12 

49.64 

93.80 

57-57 

2.21 

91.70 

.04 

per  cent. 
98.14 
7.81 

Arkansas 

88.07 

Colorado        

30.81 

Florida    

Idaho            

12.65 

Indian  Territory... 

2.02 
2.62 
1-37 
11.07 
1.29 
1.02 

75.13 
21.47 

45-82 
28.31 
58.2s 
26.55 

83-43 

31-49 

1.17 

78-54 

96.09 

Louisiana         .    ... 

92.27 

98-39 

79.29 
98.71 
98.98 

12.03 
.14 

8.51 
10.69 

6.79 
29. n 

8.87 
23.09 
10.37 
26.08 

1.04 

13-16 

.04 

Montana 

Nebraska 

12.84 
78.39 

Nevada     

4.26 

New  Mexico 

North  Dakota 

Oklahoma 

19-55 
47-39 
42.58 
32.88 

South  Dakota 

Utah 

50-36 
6.20 

Washington 

Wisconsin    .... 

42-43 
97.79 

W^y^rn'np"        ...    , 

8.30 

99.96 

Total  

1,900,019,201 

30.21 

7.64 

37-85 

62.15 

FARMING  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

1870,   1880,  and  1890. 

Ninth  Tenth  Eleventh 

Census.  Census.  Census. 

Total  population 38,558,371  50,152,866  62,622,250 

Total  engaged  in  agriculture 5,992,471  7,670,493  g. 013, 201* 

Total  in  professional  and  personal 

services 2,684,793  4,074,238  5.304.829 

Total  in  manufactures  and  mining.       2,707,421  3,837,112  5091,669+ 

Total  in  trade  and  transportation...       1,191,238  1,810,256  3.325,962 

Engaged  in  all  classes  of  occupa- 
tions      12,375,923  17,392,099  22,735.661 

Engaged  in  agriculture,  per  cent.         48.4  44.1  39.6 


374 


GENERAL  TOPICS. 


NUMBER  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  AGRI- 
CULTURAL. POPULATION  TEN  YEARS  OF  AGE 
AND    OVER.     (Eleventh  Census.) 


Occupation. 


Farmers  and  planters 

Agricultural  laborers 

'^'tardeners,  florists,  nurserymen,  etc 

Dairymen  and  dairywomen 

Other  agricultural  pursuits 

Total 


Male. 


5,055,130 

2,556,957 

70,186 

16,161 

19,058 


7,717,492 


Female, 


226,427 

447,104 

2,415 

1,734 

462 


678,142 


Total. 


5,281,557 

3,004,061 

72,601 

17,895 

19,520 


5,395,632* 


*  36.9  per  cent  of  all  persons  having  gainful  occupations. 

NUMBER   OF   FARMS   IN   UNITED   STATES    AND 
THEIR   VALUE. 

(Eleventh  Census.) 


States. 

No.  of 
Farms. 

Alabama 

157,772 

Arizona 

1,426 

Arkansas 

124,760 

California... 

52,894 

Colorado. 

16,389 

Connecticut  . 

26,350 

Delaware  .... 

9,381 

Dist.  of  Col.. 

382 

Florida 

34,228 

Georgia 

171,071 

Triaho 

6.603 

Illinois 

240,681 

Indiana 

198,167 

201,903 
166,617 

Kansas 

Kentucky .. . . 

179,264 

Louisiana 

69,294 

Maine 

62,013 

Maryland   .. 

40,798 

Massachus'ts 

34,374 

Michigan 

172,344 

Minnesota... 

116,851 

Mississippi.. . 

144,318 

Missouri   ..    . 

238.043 

Montana 

5,603 

Nebraska  .... 

113.608 

Value. 


)iii,o5i,39o 

7,222,230 

"8,574,422 

697,116,630 

85,o35,i8oj 

95,000,595 

39,586,080 
6.471,120 

72,745,180 
152,006,230 

17,431,580 
,262,870,587 
754,789,110 
857.581,022! 
559.726.0461 
346.330.360 

85,381,270! 

98,567,730 
175.058,550 
127,538,284! 
556,190,670' 
340,059.4701 

127.423,157 

625.858,361 

25,512.340 

402,358.913 


States. 

No.  of 
Farms. 

Value. 

Nevada 

1,000 

$12,339,410 

N.Hampshire 

29  151 

66,162,600 

New  Jersey . . 

30,828 

159,262,840 

New  Me.xico. 

4,458 

8,140,800 

New  York.... 

226,223 

968.127,286 

N.  Carolina.. 

178,359 

183,977,010 

N.  Dakota,. , 

27,611 

75-3'0.305 

Ohio 

251,430 
8,826 

1,046,738,247 
8,581,170 

Oklahoma  . . . 

Oregon 

25,530 

115,819,200 

Pennsylvania 

211,557 

922.240,233 

Rhode  Island 

5,500 

21,873,479 

S.  Carolina  . . 

115,008 

99,104,600 

S.  Dakota..., 

50,158 

107,466,335 

Tennessee,... 

174,412 

242,700,540 

Texas 

228,126 

399,971,289 

Utah 

10,517 
32,573 

28,402,780 
80,427,490 

Vermont 

Virginia 

127,600 

254,490,600 

Washington  . 

18,056 

83.461,660 

W.Virginia.. 

72,773 

151,880,300 

Wisconsin..,. 

146,409 

477,524.507 

Wyoming 

3,125 

14,460,880 

Total 

4,564,641 

$13,279,252,649 

*  Agriculture,  fisheries,  and  mining. 

+  Manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries. 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


375 


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376 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


AVERAGE     AGRICULTURAL.     WAGES     IN     THE 
UNITED    STATES   IN    1893-1895,    INCLUSIVE. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Years. 

Per  Month  for  Sea- 
son or  Year, 

Per  Day  in  Harvest. 

Per  Day  other  than 
Harvest. 

With 
Board. 

Without 
Board, 

With 
Board, 

Without 
Board. 

With 
Board. 

Without 
Board, 

1893 

1894 

1895 

$13-29 
12.16 
12.02 

$19.10 
17-74 
17.09 

$1.03 
•93 
.92 

$1.24 

1. 13 

1. 14 

$.69 
,63 
.62 

$.89 
.81 
.81 

VALUE    OF   PRINCIPAL  FARM  PRODUCTS  OF 
THE   UNITED    STATES.     (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Products. 

1859- 

1879. 

1889. 

Total 
Value. 

Per 
Cent. 

Total 
Value. 

Per 

Cent. 

Total 
Value. 

Per 
Cent. 

Meats 

Corn     .       ... 

$300,000,000 
360,680,878 
152,671,168 
240,400,580 

9.1 
14.4 

$800,000,000 
694,818,304 
409,505,783 
391,131,618 
436,968,463 
271,636,121 
180,000,000 
440,438,353 

22.1 
19.2 
11.3 
10.8 
12.0 
7-5 
50 
12. 1 

1 

$900,000,000 
597,918,829 
526,632,062 
411,976,522 
342,491,707 
307,008,114 
200,000,000 
472,492.249 

239 
15.9 

Hay 

Dairy  products. 
Wheat 

14.0 
11.0 
9.1 

8.2 

Poultry 

Other  products* 

75,000,000 
206,639,527 

4.5 
12.4 

.i:i 

Grand  total.  . 

1,671,544.323 

100 

3,624,498,642 

■  oo 

3,758,519,483 

100 

*  other  products  include  barley,  buckwheat,  flax  fiber,  flaxseed,  hemp, 
hops,  Irish  potatoes,  leaf  tobacco,  maple  sirup,  maple  sugar,  oats,  rice, 
rye,  sorghum-molasses,  sweet  potatoes,  and  wool. 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


377 


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378 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


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STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


379 


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380 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


I  VO  VO 

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STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


381 


AREA,  PRODUCT,    AND    VALUE    OF   PRINCIPAL. 
CROPS   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES  IN    1898. 


(U. 

S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Total  Pro- 
duction. 

Total 
Area  of 
Crop. 

Total 

Value  of 

Crop. 

3   3 

< 

ll 

< 

< 

Indian  corn,  bu.. 

Wheat, 

Oais, 

Rye, 

Barley,             "  .. 

Buckwheat,     "  .. 

Potatoes,         "  .. 

Tobacco,*  lbs  . . . 

1,924,184,660 

675,148.705 

730,906.643 

25,657,522 

55,792,257 

11,721,937 

192,306,338 

403,004,320 

66,376,920 

10,897,857 

Acres. 

77,721,781 

44,055,278 

25,777,110 

1,643,207 

2.583,125 

678,332 

2.557,729 

594,749 

42,780,827 

24,319,584 

$ 

552,023,428 

302,770,320 

186,405,364 

11,875,350 

23,064,359 

5,271,462 

79,574,772 

24,258,070 

398,060,647 

319,491,412 

Cents 

28.6 
58.1 

46.2 

41-3 

44.9 

41.3 

6.0 

S6.14 

29.32 

247 
15-3 
28.3 
15.6 
21.5 
17.2 
75-2 
677-5 
1-55 
0.45 

8.91 
7-23 
7.22 
8.92 

7-77 
31.11 
40.79 

9-31 
1314 

Cotton, t  bales.... 

*  Crop  of  1896.  +  Crop  of  1897. 

THE    PRINCIPAL     CEREAL     PRODUCTS    OF    THE 

UNITED    STATES. 
As  Shown  by  the  Census  Returns,  from  1850  to  1890. 


Cen- 
sus 
of 

Indian 
Corn. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

Rye. 

Buck- 
wheat. 

1850 
i860 
1870 
1880 
1890 

Bushels. 
592,071,104 
838,792,742 
760,944,549 
1,754,801,525 
2,112,327,547 

Bushels. 

100,485,944 

173.104,924 

287,745.626 

459.479.505 

468,373,968 

Bushels. 

146,584.179 
172,643,185 
282,107,157 
407,858,999 
809,250,666 

Bushels. 
5,^67.015 
15.825,898 
29,761,305 
44,113,495 
78,332,976 

Bushels. 
14,188,813 
21,101,380 
16,918,795 

19,831,595 
28,421,398 

Bushels. 

8,956,912 
17,571,818 

9,821,721 
11,817,327 
12,110,349 

PRODUCTION    OF    VARIOUS    CROPS   IN    CANADA, 
1891.      (Census  of  1891.) 


Wheat   

Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Peas  and  beans. 


Turnips     and      other 

roots 49,555,902  bu. 

Grass  and  clover 340,650   '• 

Fruits,  grapes,  etc 68,864,181  lbs. 

Tobacco 4,277,936   " 

Hops 1,126,230   " 

Flaxseed 137,015  bu. 


,  42,144,770 

17,148,198 

82,515,413 

1,328,322 

^     ,     ^  15,514.836 

Buckwheat 4.886.122 

Corn  (maize) 10,675,886 

Potatoes 52,653,704 

Area  of  improved  land  in  Canada,  1891 28,537,242  acres. 

"       "  "  "      under  crop 19,904,826      " 

"      "  gardens  and  orchards 464,462      " 

•'      "pastures 15,284,788 

*  Crop  of  1894. 


382 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


AVERAGE  COST  PEU  ACRE  OF  RAISING  WHEAT, 

CORN,  AND  COTTON  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

1893.* 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Rent  of  land 

Manure  or  fertilizers 

Preparing  ground 

Seed 

Sowing  or  planting 

Cultivating 

Harvesting,  gathering,  or  pickinj 

Thrashing 

Ginning  and  pressing 

Housing  

Repairing  implements 

Marketing 

Other  expenses 


Total $ 


Wheat. 

Corn. 

Cotton, 
Upland. 

Cotton, 
Seab'd. 

$2.81 

$3-03 

$2.88 

$2.36 

2 

16 

1.86 

1.46 

3-75 

1 

87 

1.62 

2.81 

3.65 

96 

.21 

.38 

37 

.42 

.28 

.46 

. 

1.80 

I-3I 

1-73 

I 

19 

1.22 

3-37 

5-17 

I 

20 
37 

•50 

•42 

2.6*1 
.42 

76 

1.26 

.64 

.91 

.... 

.... 

.41 

•51 

$11. 

69 

$11.71 

$15.42 

$21.95 

AVERAGE  FARM  PRICE  OF  VARIOUS  AGRICUL- 
TURAL PRODUCTS  ON  DEC.  1  IN  EACH  YEAR 
FROM    1890   TO    1898. 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Crop. 


Corn  per  bushel 

Wheat         "         

Rye  "        

Oats  "         

Barley         "         

Buckwheat  per  bush.. 
Irish  potatoes      " 

Hay  per  ton 

Cotton  per  lb 

Leaf  tobacco  per  lb. . . 


$ 

.506 
.838 
.629 
.424 
.648 
•577 
•777 
•74 
.086 
.077 


$ 
0.406 
0.839 
0.774 
0-315 
0.540 
0-579 
0-371 
8-.39 
0.073 
0.084 


1892. 

T" 

©•393 

p.  624 

0.548 

0.317 

0.472 

©•534 

0.673 

8.49 

0.084 


[893. 


1894. 

T' 

3.457 

3.491 

0.501 

3.324 

3.442 

3-556 

^•536 

8.54 

3.046 

3. 068 


1895. 

~$~ 
0-253 
0.509 
0.440 
0.199 

0-337 

0.452 

0.266 

8.35 

0.076 

0.069 


0.215 
0.726 


o.  loy 
0-323 


6.55 
0.066 


[897. 


•377 

.421 

•547 

.62 

.066 


s 

).287 
).582 


■255 
•413 


*  Data  for  wheat  and  corn  consolidated  from  returns  from  nearly  30,000 
leading  farmers  scattered  throughout  the  United  States.  The  data  for 
cotton  were  secured  in  1897,  and  are  the  averages  of  returns  from  over 
3400  planters. 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


383 


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184 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


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STATISTICAL    TABLES. 


385 


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STATISTICAL    TABLES. 


Obt 


NUMBER   AND   VALUE    OF    FARM   ANIMALS   IN 
THE    UNITED    STATES,   1870-95. 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Farm  Animals. 

Jan.  I,  1870. 

Jan.  I,  1880. 

Jan.  I,  1890. 

Jan.  I,  1895. 

Horses,  number. 

8,248,800 

11,201,800 

14,213,837 

15,893.318 

value... 

$671,319,461 

$613,296,611 

$978,516,562 

$576,7.30,580 

Mules,  number.. 

1,179,500 

1,729,500 

2.331,027 

2.333.108 

value  ... 

$128,584,769 

$105,948,319 

$182,394,099 

$110,927,834 

Milch  cows,  No. 

10,095,600 

12,027,000 

15.952,883 

16.504,629 

value.. 

$394,094,745 

$279,899,420 

$352,152,133 

$362,601,726 

O.xen  and  other 

cattle,  number 

15,388,500 

21,231,000 

36,849,024 

34,:?64.2i6 

value.. 

$:i46,Q26,440 

$341,761,154 

$560,625,137 

$482,999,129 

Sheep,  number.. 

40,853,000 

40,765,900 

44,336,072 

42.204.064 

value 

$93,364,433 

$90,230,537 

$100,659,761 

$66,685,767 

Swine,  number.. 

26,751,400 

34.034,100 

51,602.780 

44.165,716 

value  — 

$187,191,502 

$145,781,515 

$243,418,336 

$219,501,267 

Total    value    of 

farm  animals.. 

$1,822,327,377 

$1,576,917,556 

$2,418,766,028 

$1,819,446,306 

NUMBER   OF   FAR3I  ANIMALS   IN  CANADA,   1891. 

(Census  of  1891.) 


Provinces. 


Ontario 

Quebec .. 

Nova  Scotia 

New  Brunswick 

Manitoba  

British  Columbia 

Prince  Edward  Island 
The  Territories 


Horses, 


771,838 
344,290 
65,047 
59,773 
86,735 
44.521 
37,392 
60,976 


Working- 

Miich 

Oxen. 

Cows. 

12,424 

876,167 

45.676 

549,544 

28,424 

141.684 

7,510 

106,649 

19,199 

82,712 

2,631 

17.504 

116 

45,849 

7,583 

37,003 

Sheep. 


:, 02 1,769 

730,286 

331.492 

181,941 

35,838 

49,163 

147,372 

64,920 


Swine. 


,121.396 
369,608 
48,048 
50,945 
54.177 
30.764 
42,629 
16,283 


REGISTERED,     OR     PEDIGREED,     CATTLE     OF 
SELECTED    BREEDS.      (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Estimates  of  the  number  living  in  the  United  States,  1898. 


Breeds. 

Regis- 
tered. 

Living. 

Breeds. 

Regis- 
tered. 

Living. 

Ayrshires 

Brown-Swiss.. 

Devons 

Dutch  Belted.. 

Guernseys  .... 

Holstein-  Frie- 

sians 

22,000 
2,871 

18,343 

1,128 

16,600 

100,000 

6,050 
1,200 

io,coo 
500 

11, 000 

60,000 

Jerseys 

Normandies... . 
Polled  Durhams 

Red  Polls 

Shorthorns 

Simmenthalers.. 

Total 

184,000 

25 

1,321 

19,068* 

366,545 

25 

90,000 

25 

1,200 
? 
140,000 
25 

731,926 

320,000 

*  Includes  all  in  Great  Britain  and  L'''nited  States. 


388 


GENERAL  TOPICS. 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS   PRODUCED   OX    FARMS,    AC- 
CORDING  TO   THK    ELKVKXTH    CENSUS. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricultvj-e.) 


States  and  Territories. 


Butter. 


Cheese. 


Milk. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts  . . 
Rhode  Island.... 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina., 
South  Carolina.. 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas  

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

West  Virginia... 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota.  

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

South  Dakota. .. 
North  Dakota.   . 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico  — 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada  

Idaho 

Washington 

Oregon 

California  

Total,  1889... 
Total,  1879.  •• 
Total,  1869... 


Pounds. 
151593.315 

7,942,840 
23,314,063 

8,358,703 
965,456 

7,196,095 
98,241,813 

8,367,218 
76,809,041 

2,026,498 

9j999,6o2 
17,949,966 
13,129,374 

5,737^557 

14,483,323 

867,195 

I4,548;435 
12,988,637 
2,-89,774 
32,100,560 
15,724,144 
28,314.389 
14,^63,627 
29,038,406 
74,990,307 
50,197,481 
48,477,766 
57,x2i,486 
46,^:5,623 
34,766,409 

72,oJ3  07^ 

43,108,-21 

46,117,076 

27,818,078 

13,127,244 

5,712,566 

1,062,185 

4.8,269 

3,282,086 

86,042 

"5,203 

i>759,.354 

489.657 

1,078,103 

3,482,225 

4,786,277 

26,776,704 


Pounds. 

696,052 

341,235 

609,586 

122,900 

24,631 

112,566 

4,324,028 

23,613 

439,060 

359 

9,573 

109,187 

60,760 

2,476 

12,833 

1,731 

6,131 

4,808 

3,930 

145,730 

21,328 

69,919 

74,372 

64,822 

1,068,08-, 

328,682 

360,048 

343,456 

906,266 

676,642 

1,038,358 

288,620 

759,210 

463,831 

303,951 

131,374 

11,512 

t5,i96 

87,183 

18,931 

10,855 

163,539 

51.207 

207,213 

71,281 

265,576 

3,871,575 


1,023,821,770 
777,229,367 
514,088,188 


18,725,218 
27,272,489 
53,492,153 


Gallons. 

57.969,791 

42,633  268 

90,712,230 

82,571,924 

10,610.547 

54,413,822 

663,917,240 

64,003,953 

368,906,480 

10,699,362 

46,601,218 

78,143,459 

55,250,665 

23,833,631 

52.234,508 

5,056,790 

55,508,687 

50,803,371 

12,881,927 

118,475,320 

54,325,673 

107,657,116 

59,449,066 

118,497,289 

326,925,396 

224,537,488 

200,510,797 

367.269,464 

303,701,134 

182,968,973 

486,961,411 

193,931,103 

201,608,099 

144,768,263 

59,666,523 

26,566,112 

6,038,096 

3,064,588 

19,680,791 

717,155 

709,225 

8,614,694 

2,532,052 

5,085,863 

19,873,281 

25,042,276 

111,191,186 


5,207,12 1 ,309 
529,632.966 
235.374,522 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


380 


STATISTICTS  OF  BUTTKK,  CHKESK,  AND  CON- 
DENSED ^IILK  FACTORIES  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.     (Eleventh  Census.) 


Totals  fo"  he  United  States. 


Number  of  establishments  reporting ... 

Capital  employed ,  aggregate dollars 

Plant,  total  value " 

Land " 

Buildings  " 

Machinery " 

Live  assets " 

Expenses,  total  annual " 

Employes  average  number 

Total  wages  paid dollars 

Earnings  of  skilled  operatives,  weekly: 

Average  for  males  above  i6  years " 

Average  for  females  above  15  years .       " 

Average  for  children ' " 

Hours  of  labor,  daily  average: 

May  to  November hours 

November  to  May  " 

Materials  used: 

Aggregate  cost dollars 

For  butter: 

Gathered  cream .   pounds 

Milk " 

Total  cost  dollars 

For  cheese: 

Milk pounds 

Total  cost dollars 

For  condensed  milk: 

Milk pounds 

Sugar " 

Total  cost  dollars 

Fuel  and  rented  power,  cost " 

Products: 

Aggregate  value " 

Butter  made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese,  full  cream: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese,  skim: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese,  all  other  made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese,  total  made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Condensed  milk: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Skim-m;lk  and  all  other  products,  value " 


1890. 


Butter  and 

Cheese 
Factories. 

Urban 
Estabs, 

16,016,573 
11,630,692 

968,333 
5088,257 
5,083.102 
4,376,881 

813.054 

14.369 

5,116,005 

160 
607,590 
449.880 
145.692 
150,149 
154,039 
i57-,7'o 
61,228 

552 
274.700 

9.48 
5-35 
2.75 

11.09 
10.03 

49,819.301 

1,545,273 

483,630.741 

1,893,319,242 

29,538,827 

2.684,550,517 
16,953,992 

83,617,655 

13,372,365 

2,792,086 

534,396 

60,635,705 

2,050,338 

181,284,916 
36,675,411 

184,158.174 
16,113,871 

22,467,132 
1,230,297 

31.409,759 
2,459,783 

238,035,065 
19.802,951 

37,926.821 

3,586.927 

570,416 

390 


GEN"ERAL  TOPICS. 


CHEESE,    BUTTER,    AND   CONDEXSED-MILK    FAC- 
TORIES,   ACCORDING   TO    STATES. 

(Eleventh  Census.) 


State. 

No.  of 
Factories. 

Employes. 

Value  of 
Products. 

New  York 

1,308 
966 
497 

330 

IS 

lOI 

100 
61 

58 

52 

49 

239 

3,075 

1,817 

2,545 

890 

904 

1,540 

310 

855 

312 

$14,385,966 
6,960,711 
10,545,182 
3,001,606 
5,319,434 
8,004,991 
1.602,641 
2.Q58.476 
919,787 

Wisconsin 

Iowa 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Vermont  .......•••.... .... .. 

Michigan 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

186  400.551 
475         1        i,i"3,ooo 

187  402,556 
1^2                     881,327 
687                 2,890,338 

Indiana ....   ........ 

Other  States 

Total  for  the  United  States.. . . 

4,552 

14,369 

$60,635,705 

WOOL  PRODUCT   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,   1898. 


Total. 

Pulled 
Wool. 

Total  Prod- 
uct, 1898. 

Number  of  sheep,  April  i,  1898 

Average  weight  of  clip,  lbs 

Wool,  washed  and  unwashed,  lbs.. 

35,671,914 

6.44 

229,860,065 

61 

89,545,210 

36,860,619 

40 
22,116,371 

266,720,684 

W^ool  scoured    lbs 

111,661,581 

PRODUCTION   AND    CONSUMPTION    OF  SUGAR   IN 
THE    UNITED    STATES,    1897.     (Willett  &  Gr.^y.) 


Domestic  Sugar. 

Tons. 

Foreign  Sugar. 

Tons. 

Total, 
Tons.  ■ 

Cane-sugar 

Beet-      "      

Maple-  "      

Sorghum-sugar . . . 

289,009 

4^,347 

S.ooo 

.       300 

335,656 

Cai-.e-sugar 

0     .       ..   J  Raw  .. 
^"^^            1  Refined 
Maple-  " 

Sorghum-sugar.   . 
Total .... 

1,066,684 

616,635 

77,288 

j     1,355,693 

'  j-     735,270 

5,000 

300 

Total.... 

1,760.607 

1 

2.096,263 

STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


391 


BEET-SLGAR    PRODUCTIOX   IX   THE    UNITED 
STATES,    1898-9,    BY   FACTORIES.       (Willett  &  Gray.'i 


Location  of  Factory. 

Tons  (of 
2240  lbs.). 

Location  of  Factory. 

Tons  (of 
2240  lbs.). 

Alvarado,  Cal 

Watsonville,  Cal 

Grand  Island,  Neb 

Norfolk,  Neb 

3244 
6000 
1596 
3T25 
4424 
5392 
550 
300 

Rome,N.  Y 

Crockett,  Cal 

Le  Grande.  Ore 

Og-den,  Utah 

Binghamton,  N.  Y 

Bay  City,  Mich 

St.  Louis  Park,  Minn.. 
Total... 

580 
1500 

826 
1340 

450 
2253 

891 

32,471 

Lehi    Utah 

Chmo,  Cal .... 

Eddy,  N.  M 

Los  Alamitos,  Cal 

SUGAR   I3IPORTS   FOR   THE    YEAR   ENDING 
JUNE   30,    1898.      (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Countries  from  which  imported. 


Cuba  

Germany 

Dutch  East  Indies. . 
Hawaii 

British  West  Indies. 
Brazil 

British  Guiana 

Santa  Doming^o  ..    . 
Philippine  Islands... 

Porto  Rico 

Belgium  

Egypt 

United  Kingdom  ... 

Austria-Hungary 

Netherlands.. 

France  

China 

Dutch  Guiana ... 

British  Africa  

Danish  West  Indies. 

Hongkong 

Canada 

Other  countries 


,225,111 
1275,440 
,731,462 
.776,895 
401,746 
,426,285 
1145,529 
.336,444 
,489,600 
,452,421 
,366,370 
,354,144 
,106,706 
,788,767 
,659,827 
17,781 
,161,664 
.636,341 
,081,142 
,832,991 
,183,246 
717,532 
1753,407 


Total   2,689,920,851 


Value. 


$9,828,607 

3,520,796 

11,250,181 

16,660,412 

4,552,454 

2,317,990 

3,045,666 

2,030,239 

381,279 

1,913,742 

31.909 

1,230,071 

504,714 

67,831 

957,908 

480 

176,751 

585,326 

131,469 

312,446 

107,295 

32,589 

832,594 


$60,472,749 


The  average  price  per  pound  of  "Standard  A"  sugar  in 
the  New  York  market  in  i8g8  was  4.84  cents.  The  average 
consumption  of  sugar  of  all  grades  per  capita  of  population 
in  the  United  States  was  61.  i  lbs. 


n93 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


POULTRY   AND   EGG   PRODUCT   IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES, 

According  to  the  Census  of  1880  and  1890. 


Poultry  on  hand  June  i.    Number. 

Barnyard  fowl  (chickens) 

Gcese,  ducks,  turkeys,  etc 

E^'-},''s  produced  (dozens) 


1879-1S80. 


102,265,653 

23,234,687 

456,875,080 


1889-1890. 


258,472.155 

26,816,545 

817,211,146 


At  12  cents  a  dozen,  a  very  moderate  estimate,  the  annual  value  of  the 
egg  product  on  the  farm  rose  from  $55,000,000  in  1879  to  $98,000,000  in 
1889,  an  increase  of  79  per  cent.  There  was  an  increase  of  153  per  cent  in 
the  number  of  barnyard  fowl  during  the  decade  considered,  and  of  other 
fowl  (geese,  ducks,  turkeys,  etc.)  an  increase  of  15  per  cent. 

IMPORTANCE    OF   APIARIAN   INDUSTRY   IN   THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

j\piarian  societies  in  the  United  States no 

Apiarian  journals 8 

Steam  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  beehives 

and  apiarian  implements 15 

Persons  engaged   in  the  culture  of  bees  (esti- 
mated)    300,000 

Honey  and  wax  produced,  at   wholesale  rates 

(eleventh  census) $7,000,000 

Estimate  of  the  present  annual  value  of  apiarian 

products §20,000,000 

PRODUCTION  OF  HONEY  AND  BEESWAX  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  ACCORDING  TO  CENSUS  RE- 
TURNS OP   1869,    1879,  AND   1889. 


Honey,  lbs  . . 
Beeswax,  lbs. 


14,702,815 
631,129 


1878 


25,741,485 
I. 1051556 


[889 


63,894,186 
1,166,543 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


393 


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GENERAL   TOPICS. 


DOMESTIC  EXPORTS   OF    BUTTER   AND   CHEESE, 

1870-98.      (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Butter. 

Cheese. 

Year. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

1870 

2,019,288 

$592,229 



57,296,327 

$8,881,934 

1871 

3,965.043 

853,096 

63,698,867 

8,752,990 

1872 

7,746,261 

1,498,812 

66,204,025 

7,752,918 

1873 

4,518.844 

952,919 

80,366,540 

10,498,010 

1874 

4.367,983 

1,092,381 

1       90,611,077 

11,898,995 

1875 

6,360,827 

1,506,996 

101,010,853 

13,659,603 

1876 

4,644,894 

1,109,496 

!      97,676,264 

12,270,083 

1877 

21,527,242 

4,424,616 

107,364,666 

12,700,627 

1878 

2I,8:!7,II7 

3,931,822 

123,783,736 

14,103,529 

1879 

38,248,016 

5.421.205 

141,654,474 

12,579,968 

1880 

39,236,658 

6,690,687 

1    127,553,907 

12,171,720 

i88r 

31,560,500 

6,256,024 

1    147,995,614 

16,380,248 

1882 

14,794,305 

2,864,570 

:    127.989,782 

14,058,975 

1883 

12,348,641 

2,290,665 

1     99,220,467 

11,134,526 

1884 

20,627,374 

3,750,771 

1    112,869,575 

11,663,713 

^^^5 

21,683,148 

3,643,646 

111,992,990 

10,444,4^'j 

3886 

18,953,990 

2,958,457 

91,877,235 

7,662,145 

1887 

12,531, '71 

1,983,698 

81,255,994 

7,594,633 

1888 

10,455,651 

1,884,908 

88,008,458 

8,736,3W 

1889 

15,504,978 

2,568.765 

84.999,828 

7,889,67. 

1890 

29,748,042 

4,187,489 

95,376,053 

8,591,0.12 

1891 

15.187,114 

2,197,106 

82.133,876 

7,405, 3-.0 

1892 

15,047,246 

2,445,878 

82,100,221 

7,676,6,7 

1893 

8,920,107 

1,672,690 

81,350,923 

7,624,64  J 

1894 

11,812,092 

2,077,608 

73,852,134 

7, 180,3?  r 

'^^1 

5,598,812 

9i5>533 

60,448,421 

5,497-5.^9 

1896 

19,373,913 

2,937,203 

36,777,291 

3,091,914 

1897 

31,345,224 

4,493,364 

50,944,617 

4,636,063 

1898 

25.690,025 

3,864.765 

53,167.280 

4,559,3'-4 

EXPORTS  OP  DAIRY  PRODUCTS  FROM  CANADA, 

1868-95.      (Statistical  Year-book  for  1895.) 


Butter. 

Cheese. 

Year. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

1868 

10,649,733 

$1,698,042 

6,141,570 

$62C,543 

1880 

18,535,362 

3,058,069 

40,368,678 

3,893 -3<36 

1881 

17,649,491 

3-573,034 

49,255,523 

5,510,443 

1882 

15,161,839 

2,936,150 

50,807,049 

5,500,868 

1^3 

8,106,447 

1,705,817 

58,041,387 

6,451,870 

1884 

8,075,537 

1,612,481 

69,755-,423 

7.251,959 

^11^ 

7,330,788 

1.430,905 

79,655,367 

8,265.240 

1886 

4,668,741 

832,355 

78,112,927 

6,754.626 

1887 

5,485-509 

979,126 

73,604,448 

7,108,978 

1888 

4.415,381 

798,673 

84,173,267 

8,928,242 

1889 

1,780,765 

331,958 

88,534,887 

8,915.684 

1890 

1-951,585 

340,131 

94,260,187 

9,372,212 

1891 

3,768.101 

602. T75 

106.202,140 

9,=:o8.Soo 

1892 

5,736.696 

1.056,058 

118.270,0^2 

11,652.412 

1803 

7,036,013 

1,296,814 

133,946,365 

13,407,470 

1894 

5,534-621 

i,o95,5S8 

154,977,480 

15,488,191 

1895 

^,650.258 

697.476 

146.004.650 

14.253,002 

STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


399 


THE    FJERTILiIZER    INDUSTRY   OP   THE  UNITED 

STATES.     (U.  S.  Dkpartment  of  Agriculture.) 


Tons 
(of  2000  lbs.). 

Value 
(wholesale). 

Commercial  fertilizers  sold  in  1896, 

in  23  Eastern  and  Central  States 

in  rest  of  United  Slates 

1,624,063 
270,854 

$32,301,582 
5.387.287 

Total  for  the  United  States 

1,894,917 

§37,688,86.j 

(retail) 
11,449,069 
18,759,139 
3,067,515 
4,952,01; 
241, 8f  ■ 

Census  returns,  1890,  value  of  fertilizers  pur- 
chased: 

South  Atlantic         '*                             

North  Central          " 

Western                   ''             .                   

838,469,50^ 

IMPORTS    AND    EXPORTS    OF    FERTILIZERS    IN 

1896.     (U.  S.  Treasury  Department.) 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Value 
per  Ton.  ■ 

Tons. 

Value. 

Value 
per  Ton. 

375,7'33-93 

$7,376,615 

$19.04 

514,143 

$4,400,593 

S8.56 

IMPORTS    OF   FERTILIZERS    AND    FERTILIZER 
3IATERIALS,   1896. 


Articles. 


Ammonia,  sulfate  of 

Apatite   .. 

Ashes,  wood  and  lye  of,  and  beet-root  ashes 

Blood,  dried 

Bone-dust  or  animal  carbon,  and  bone-ash, 

tit  only  for  fertilizing'  purposes 

Bones,  crude,  burned,  calcined,  ground  or 

steamed 

Cotton-seed  meal  and  cake 

Guano 

Kieserite,  cyanite,  and  kainit 

Lime 


Oil-cake 

Phosphates,  crude  or  native 

Potash,  muriate  of 

Potash,  sulfate  of 

Soda,  nitrate  of,  or  cubic  nitrate 

All  substances,  not  otherwise  specified  . 
Total 


Tons. 


12,270.70 
434.00 


325.6 

5,072.29 

67,192.9 

21,403.02 

8,911.50 

20,562.29 

43,438.35 

7,423-67 

145,456.64 

40.259.95 

375-733-<^2 


Value.     „  Value 
per  Ton. 


$480,971 
3,030 

67,394 
1,014* 

37.992 

154.610 

3-170 

52-697 

320,765 

76,302 

52,867 

153,370 

',372,743 

269,810 

3,870,734 

460,160 

$7^6,675 


$39.20 
6.9C 


9-7A 
10.39 

4.77 

3-57 

5.93 

7.46 

31. 60 

36.34 

26.61 

"-43 

$19  04 


In  1895. 


400  GENERAL  TOPICS. 


VI.    DIRECTORY. 

DIRECTORY     OP     OFFICtAL.    AGRICULTURALi 
INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Secretary  of  Agriculture — Hon.  James  Wilson.* 
Assistant     Secretary    of    Agriculture  —  Joseph   H. 
Brigham. 

Scientific  Bureaus  and  Divisions, 

Weather  Bureau — Willis  L.  Moore,  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry — D.  E.  Salmon,  Chief. 

Dairy  Division — Henry  E.  Alvord,  Chief. 

Division  of  Statistics — John  Hyde,  Statistician. 

Section  of  Foreign  Markets — Frank  H.  Hitchcock, 
Chief. 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations — A.  C.  True,  Director. 

Division    of  Entomology — L.  O.  Howard,  Entomologist. 

Division  of  Chemistry — Harvey  W.  Wiley,  Chemist. 

Division    of    Botany — Frederick  V.  Coville,  Botanist. 

Division  of  Forestry — Gifford  Pinchot,  Forester. 

Division  of  Biological  Survey  —  C.  Hart  Merriam, 
Biologist. 

Division  of  Pomology — Gustavus  B.  Brackett,  Fof/iol- 
ogist. 

Division  of  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology— 
B.  T.  Galloway,  Pathologist. 

Division  of  Agrostology — F.  Lamson-Scribner,  Agros- 
tologist. 

Division  of  Soils— Milton  Whitney,  Chief. 

Office  of    Irrigation  Inquiry — Chas.  W.  Irish,  Chief. 

*  Term  expires  March  4,  1901. 


DIRECTORY.  401 

Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiries — Roy  Stone,  Director. 

Division  of  Gardens  and  Grounds — William  Saunders, 
Horticulturist  and  Superintendent  of  Gardens  and  Grounds. 

Division  of  Publications — Geo.  Wm.  Hill,  Chief. 

Division  of  Accounts  and  Disbursements — Frank  L. 
Evans,  Chief. 

Division  of  Seeds — Robert  J.  Whittleton,  Chief. 

Library — W.  P.  Cutter,  Librarian. 

Canada. 

Ministers  of  Agriculture — 

Dominion  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Hon.  Sidney  Fisher, 

Ottawa. 
Hon.  John  Dryden,  Toronto,  Prov.  of  Ontario. 
Hon.  Louis  Beaubien,  Quebec,  Prov.  of  Quebec. 
Hon.  B.  W.  Chipman,  Halifax,  Prov.  of  Nova  Scotia. 
Hon.    Julius    L.    Inches,    Fredericton,    Prov.    of    New 

Brunswick. 
Hon.  J.  H.  Turner,  Victoria,  Prov.  of  British  Columbia. 
Hon.  Thomas  Greenway,  Winnipeg,  Prov.  of  Manitoba. 


402 


GENERAL    TOPICS. 


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DIRECTORY. 


403 


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404 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


STATISTICS    OF    AGUICL  LTURAL.    SCHOOLS    AND 
COIiLKGES    IN    THK     UNITKD    STATES,    1898. 

(U.  S.  Dei'aktment  of  Agriculture.) 


State. 


Alabama  (Auburn) 

Alabama  (Normal) 

Arizona 

Arkansas  (Fayetteville).. . 

Arkansas  (Pine  Bluff) 

Calitornia 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware  (Newark) 

I )ela ware  (Dover) 

Florida  (Lake  City) 

Florida  (Tallahassee) 

Georgia  (Athens) 

Georgia  (College) 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa  

Kansas 

Kentucky  (Lexington)  . . , 

Kentucky  (Frankfort) 

Louisiana  (Baton  Rouge), 

Louisiana  (New  Orleans). 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts  (Amherst), 

Massachusetts  (Boston).., 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi  (Agricultural 
College) 

Mississippi  (Westside). . . 

Missouri  (Columbia)...    . 

Missouri  (RoUa) 

Missouri  (Jefferson  City) 

Montana . 

Nebraska 

Nevada ...... 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York   . .   .   

North  Carolina  (West  Ra- 
leigh)  

North  Carolina  (Greens 
boro)   

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. 

Rhode  Island 


1872 

1891 
1872 

i868 
1878 
1881 
1870 
1892 
1884 
1890 
1872 

1892 
1868 
1874 
1869 
1874 


[890 
[868 
t859 
[867 

^855 


1S80 
1878 
1870 


1893 


1866 
1865 
1890 
1 86s 


1873 
1892 
1888 
1S59 


ci. 

m^j 

u  iUcc 

2  = 

3 

341 

105 

48 

4S8 

167 

33 

i=;6 

2 

4 

478 

3 

13 

319 

10 

2391 

238 

247 

344 

99 

13 

113 

"3 

M 

lOI 

4 

10 

46 

4 

2 

200 

7 

12 

218 

16 

no 

19 

II 

160 

7 

248 

6 

8 

1582 

38 

90 

750 

60 

72 

636 

57 

88 

803 

69 

430 

7 

19 

147 

50 

12 

250 

45 

12 

445 

62 

16 

324 

4 

43 

105 

10 

13 

142 

133 

II 

1198 

193 

475 

168 

29 

2890 

470 

185 

296 

229 

15 

248 

248 

I 

818 

101 

42 

117 

5 

120 

20 

201 

5 

4 

523 

67 

44 

328 

19 

143 

4  + 

19 

296 

25 

41 

215 

4 

8 

1835 

84 

260 

237 

35 

6 

1150 

100 

71 

174 

-0 

7 

336 

61 

29 

347 

76 

44 

i«3 

30 

10 

DIRECTORY. 


405 


STATISTICS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  AND 
COLLEGES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1898.— 

Continued, 


State. 

1^ 

3H 

29  . 

ll 

111 

a 

c 
<u 

1 

3 

0 

13 
0 

s 

li 

South    Carolina  (Clem- 
son  College) 

1893 

1896 
1884 
1869 
1871 

29 

21 
19 
30 
22 

8 
21 
20 
31 
79 
23 

3S 
8 
57 
II 

477 

5fio 
400 
608 
337 
190 
447 
575 
333 
1120 
380 

644 

1767 
185 

100 

45 
32 
20 
176 
30 

29 
100 

26 

10 

25 

12 

19 
31 
23 

62 

South      Carolina     (Or- 
anffeburg)  

28 

South  Dakota 

133 

Texas  (College  Station) 
Texas  (Prairie  View) 

332 

Utah 

Vermont : 

Virginia  (Blacksburg).. 

Virginia  (Hampton) 

Washington         

West      Virginia     (Mor- 
gantown) 

1S89 
1885 
1872 
1890 
1892 

T867 

i8g2 
1866 
1891 

5 
36 
17 

n 
45 

52 

3174 

263 

987 

23 

West  Virgmia  (Farm).. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

276 
3 

164 

3556 

57 

Total 

1722 

31,658 

4181 

23=3 

34,i6S 

406  GENERAL  TOPICS. 


LIST  OF  AMERICAN  VETERINARY  COLLEGES. 

National  Veterinats-y  College,  Washington,  D.  C: 
Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon,  Pres. ;  Dr.  Chas.  F.  Dawson,  Sec. 

Veterinary  Department,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia,  Pa.:  John  Marshall,  M.D.,  Dean. 

American  Veterinary  College,  University  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  New  York  City:  Dr.  A.  Liautard, 
M.D.,  Principal  and  Dean. 

New  York  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  New 
York  City:  Dr.  H.  D.  Gill,  Dean. 

School  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  Harvard  University, 
Boston,  Mass.:    Chas.  P.  Lyman,  F.R.C.V.S.,  Dean. 

Veterinary  College,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.:  Prof .  J.  Lata,  Dean. 

School  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  Ohio  State  Univer- 
sity, Columbus,  O.:    W.  R.  Lazenhy,  Secretary. 

Chicago  Veterinary  College.  Chicago,  111.:  Johs. 
Hughes,  M.R.C.V.S.,  Principal. 

McKiLLip  Veterinary  College,  Chicago,  111,:  M.  H. 
McKillip,  M.D.,  V.S.,  President. 

Veterinary  Department,  Iowa  State  Agricultural 
College,  Ames,  Iowa:  M.  Stalker,  V.S.,  Dean. 

Kansas  City  Veterinary  College,  Kansas  City,  Mo.: 
Dr.  S.  Stewart,  Dean. 

California  Veterinary  College,  San  Francisco,  Cal. : 
Dr.   Thomas  Bonhill,  Dean. 

Ontario  Veterinary  College,  Toronto,  Canada  :  Dr. 
A.  Smith,  F.R.C.V.S.,  Principal. 

McGiLL  University,  Department  of  Comparative  Medi- 
cine: D.  McEachren,  F.R.C.V.S.,  Montreal,  P.  Q.,  Canada. 


DIRECTORY. 


407 


DAIRY    SCHOOLS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    AND 
CANADA,   1899. 


State  or  Province. 

Location. 

Name  of  Director,  Super- 
intendent, or  Professor 
in  Charge. 

Alabama... 

Tuskegee 

Fort  Collins 

Storrs 

Experiment 

Moscow 

Urbana 

Lafayette 

Ames 

Manhattan 

Orono 

College  Park 

Amherst 

Agricultural  College 

St.  Anthony  Park 

Agricultural  College 

Columbia 

Lincoln 

Durham 

Ithaca 

West  Raleigh 

Fargo 

Columbus 

Corvallis 

State  College 

Brookings 

College  Station 

Logan 

Burlington 

Blacksburg 

Pullman 

Madison 

Kingston 

Guelph 

Strathroy 

St.  Hyacinthe 

Sussex 

Nappan 

Manitoba 

Prof.  Geo.  W.  Carver 
Prof.  W.  W.  Cooke 

Prof.  C    L   Beach 

Georgia 

Prof.  H.  J.  Wing 
Prof.  H.  r.  French 

Idaho 

Prof.  E.  Davenport 
Prof.  W.  C.  Latta 
Prof.  C.  F.  Curtis 

Indiana 

Kansas 

Prof.  Thos.  E.  Will 
Prof.  G.  M.  Gowell 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Prof.  H.  J.  Patterson 
Prof.  Wm.  P.  Brooks 

Minnesota 

Prof   T   L   Haecker 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Prof.  W.  L.  Hutchinson 
Prof.  H.  J.  Waters 
Prof.  T.  L.  Lyon 
Pres.  C.  S.  Murkland 
Prof.  H.  H.  Wing 
Prof.  Frank  E.  Emery 
Prof.  E.  E.  Kaufman 
Prof.  John  W.  Decker 
Prof  F  L  Kent 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota.   

Ohio 

Oregon 

Prof.  H.  Hayward 

Texas 

Utah 

Prof.  J.  H.  Connell 
Prof.  F.  B    Linfield 

Vermont 

Virginia        . .  •  • 

Prof.  J.  L.  Hills 
Prof    C    L    Goodrich 

Washington 

Wisconsin  ...           .   . 

Prof.  W.  J.  Spillman 
Prof.  E.  H.  Farrington 
J.  W.  Hart,  Supt. 
Prof   H    H    Dean 

Ontario .. 

Quebec 

Archibald  Smith,  Supt. 
E.  Castel,  Principal 
J.  E.  Hopkins 
W.  S.  Blair,  Supt. 
C.  A.  Murray,  Supt. 

New  Brunswick 

40g 


GENERAL   TOPICS. 


LIST  OF  AGRICULTURAIj  EXPERIMENT  STA- 
TIONS IN  THE   UNITED  STATES,  1899. 


Year 

State. 

Location. 

Director. 

Estab- 
lished. 

Alabama  (College).... 

Auburn 

P.  H.  Mell 

T883 

Alabama  (.Canebrake) 

Uniontown 

W.  Collins* 

1886 

Arizona 

Tucson 

R.  H.  Forbes 

1889 

Arkansas 

Fayetteville 
Berkeley 
Fort  Collins 
New  Haven 

R.  L.  Bennett 
E.  W.  Hilgard 
L.  G.  Carpenter 
S.  W.  Johnson 

1887 

1873 

Colorado    

1879 

Connecticut  (State).. 

18-7 

Connecticut  (Storrs).. 

Storrs 

W.  O.  Atwater 

i8«7 

Delaware   . .    

Newark 

A.  T.  Neale 

i888 

Lake  City 
Experiment 

W.  F.  Yocum 
R.  J.  Redding 

1SS8 

Georgia 

1888 

Idaho     ..             

Moscow 
Urbana 

J.  P.  Blanton 
E.  Davenport 

1892 

Illinois. 

1888 

Indiana 

Lafayette 

C.  S.  Plumb 

1888 

Iowa. .    

Ames 

C.  F.  Curtiss 

1S88 

Kansas 

Manhattan 

J.  T.  Wiilard 

1888 

Kentucky  

Lexington 

M.  A.  Scovell 

188s 

Louisiana  (Sugar) 

New  Orleans 

W.  C.  Stubbs 

1885 

Louisiana  (State)  .... 

Baton  Rouge 

W.  C.  Stubbs 

1886 

Louisiana  (North) 

Calhoun 

W.  C.  Stubbs 

,887 

Maine 

Orono 

Chas.  D.  Woods 

1885 

Maryland 

College  Park 

H.  J.  Patterson 

1888 

Massachusetts 

Amherst 

H.  H.  Goodell 

1882 

Michigan 

Agriculiural  College 

C.  D.  Smith 

1&88 

Minnesota .. 

St..  Anthony  Park 

W.  M.  Liggett 

1 888 

Mississippi 

Agricultural  College 

W.  L.  Hutchinson 

1888 

Columbia 
Bozeman 
Lincoln 

H.  J.  Waters 
S.  M.  Emery 
T.  L.  Lyon 

1883 

Montana    

1893 

Nebraska.  

1S84 

Nevada 

Reno 

J.  E.  Stubbs 

1888 

New  Hampshire 

Durham 

C.  S.  Murkland 

1886 

New  Jersey  (State)... 

New  Brunswick 

E.  B.  Voorhees 

1880 

Mesilla  Park 

C.  T.  Jordan 

1889 

New  York  (State).... 

Geneva 

W.  H.  Jordan 

18S2 

New  York  (Cornell).. 

Ithaca 

I.  P.  Roberts 

1879 

North  Carolina 

Raleigh 

Geo.  T.  Winston 

1877 

North  Dakota 

Fargo 

J.  H.  Worst 

1890 

Vv  ooscer 
Stillwater 

C.  E.  Thorne 
John  Fields 
T.  M.  Gatch 

1882 

Oklahoma 

1890 

Oregon 

Corvaliis 

1888 

Pennsylvania   

State  College 

H,  P.  Armsby 

1887 

Rhode  Island 

Kingston 

A.  A.  Brigham 

tS88 

South  Carolina 

Clemson  College 

H.  S.  Hartzog 

1888 

South  Dakota 

Brookings 

J.  H.  Shepard 

1887 

Knoxvilie 
College  Station 
Logan 
Burlington 
Blacksburg 

R.  L.  Watts  + 
J.  H.  Connell 
Luther  Foster 
J.  L.  Hills 
J.  M.  McBryde 

1882 

Texas             

1888 

Utah 

1890 

1886 

Virginia    

1888 

Washington 

Pullman 

E.  A.  Brvan 

1891 

West  Virginia 

Morganiown 

J.  H.  Stewart 

1888 

W^isconsin 

Madison 
Laramie 

W.  A.  Henry 
E.  E.  Smiley 

1883 

Wyoming..  

1891 

*  Assistant  director  in  charge. 


t  Secretary. 


DIRECTORY. 


409 


Canadian  Experiment  Stations. 

Central  Experimental  Farm — Ottawa,  Ont.;  Wm.  Saun- 
ders,    Director;     J.     H. 
Grisdale,  Agriculturist. 
Experimental  Farm — Nappan,  N.  S.;  R.  Robertson,  Super- 
intendent. 
"  "         Brandon,  Manitoba;  S.  A.  Bedford, 

Superintendent. 
Indian    Head,    N.    W.    T.  ;     Angus 

Mac  Kay,  Superintendent. 
Agassiz,  B.  C.  ;    Thos.   A.  Sharpe, 
Superintendent. 

Experiment     Station  —  Ontario     Agricultural     College, 

Guelph,  Ont.  ;  James  Mills, 
President;  C.  A.  Zavitz,  Ex- 
perimentalist. 


SUPERINTENDENTS  OF  FARMERS'  INSTITUTES. 


State. 

Name. 

Address. 

Alabama 

Delaware        .                .. 

J.  F.  Culver 

G.  Harold  Powell 

O.  Clute 

A.  B.  Hollister 
W.  C.  Latta 

B.  Walker  McKeen 
W.  L.  Amoss 

C.  D.  Smith 
O.  C.  Gregg 
Levi  Chubbuck 
F.  W.  Taylor 
Franklin  Dye 

F.  E.  Dawley 

D.  Reid  Parker 
\V.  W.  Miller 
John  Hamilton 
O.  C.  Brown 
George  McKerrow 

G.  Creelman 

H.  H.  McKellar. 

Montgomery,  Ala. 
Newark,  Del. 

Florida .. 

Lake  City,  Fla. 
Springfield,  111. 
Lafayette,  Ind. 
Augusta,  Me. 
College  Park,  Md. 
Agricultural  Coll., Mich. 
Lynd,  Minn. 
St.  Louis,  Mo 
Lincoln,  Neb. 
Trenton,  N.  J. 
Fayetteville,  N.  Y. 
West  Raleigh,  N.  C. 
Columbus,  O. 
Harrisburg,  Pa. 

Indiana 

Maryland 

Michigan. . . . 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  J  ersey 

Mew  York          

North  Carolina 

Ohio... 

Pennsylvania       .  . 

West  Virginia  

Wisconsin 

Ontario.  Can 

Manitoba,  Can                . 

Charleston,  W.  Va. 
Madison,  Wis. 

Guelph,  Ont. 
Brandon,  Manit. 

410  GENERAL  TOPICS. 


VI.    AGRICULTURAL    AND     DAIRY     LITER- 
ATURE. 

MORE   IMPORTANT   WORKS    ON   DAIRYING. 

American. 

Arnold,  American  Dairying.  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1876. 
(Out  of  print.) 

Biggie,  Biggie  Cow  Book.      Philadelphia,  1898.     144  pp. 

Decker,  Cheddar  Cheese  Making.  Second  edition. 
Madison,  Wis.,  1895.     151  pp.     $1.00, 

Farrington-Woll,  Testing  Milk  and  its  Products.  Sixth 
edition.     Madison,  Wis.,  1S99.     $1.00. 

Flint,  Milch  Cows  and  Dairy  Farming.      Boston,  1888. 

Georgeson,  Dairy  Industry  of  Denmark.  Washington, 
D.  C,  1893.     133  pp. 

Grotenfelt-Woll,  Modern  Dairy  Practice.  Second  edition, 
New  York,  1896.     2S5  pp.     $2.00. 

Gurler,  American  Dairying.     Chicago,  1894.     $1.00. 

Harris,  Cheese  and  Butter  Maker's  Handbook.  Glas- 
gow, 1885.     207  pp. 

Jones,  Mrs.  E.  M.,  Dairying  for  Profit.  Chicago,  1893. 
63  pp.     50  cents. 

Monrad,  ABC  in  Cheese  Making.  Winnetka,  111.  Second 
edition.     68  pp.      50  cents. 

Monrad,  ABC  in  Butter  Making.  Winnetka,  111.,  1899. 
118  pp.     50  cents. 

Monrad,  Pasteurization  and  Milk  Preservation.  Win- 
netka, 111.     78  pp.     50  cents. 

Monrad,  Cheese  Making  in  Switzerland.  Winnetka,  111. 
68  pp.     50  cents. 

Newell,  Handbook  on  Cheese  Making.  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.,   1889.      59  pp.     50  cents. 


AGRICULTURAL   AND    DAIRY    LITERATUilL.        411 

Russell,  Outlines  of  Dairy  Bacteriology.  Fourth  edition. 
Madison,  Wis.,  1899.      190  pp.     $1.00. 

Snyder,  Chemistry  of  Dairying.      Easton,  Pa.      156  pp. 

SchoennTian,  Butter-fat  and  Dividend  Calculator.  Madi- 
son, Wis.,  1S95.     66  pp.     $2.00. 

Stewart,  Dairyman's  Manual.     N.  Y.,  1888.     475  pp. 

Willard,  Practical  Dairy  Husbandry.  N.  Y.,  1S77. 
546  pp. 

Willard,  Practical  Butter  Book.     N.  Y.,  1883.      171  pp. 

Wing,  Milk  and  its  Products.     N.  Y.,  1897.     280  pp. 

English. 

Fleischmann,  Book  of  the  Dairy.    London,  1896.     los.  6d. 

Sheldon,  Dairy  Farming.     London.      570  pp.,  4to. 

Sheldon,  The  Farm  and  the  Dairy.  London,  i88g.  154 
pp.     2s.  6d. 

Sheldon,  British  Dairying.     2d  ed.,  1896.      170  pp. 

Aikman.  Milk,  its  Nature  and  Composition.  London, 
1895.      180  pp. 

Long,  The  Dairy  Farm.      London,  1889.      ii5  PP« 

Long  and  Morton,  The  Dairy.     London.      146  pp. 

Oliver,  Milk,  Cheese,  and  Butter.    London,  1894.    362  pp. 

Freudenreich,  Dairy  Bacteriology.    London,  1895.    115  pp. 

Other  European. 

Boggild,  Malkeriebruget  i  Danmark.  Second  edition. 
Copenhagen,  1896.     627  pp. 

Martiny,  Die  Milch,  I-IL    Danzig,  1871.    438  and  366  pp. 

Martiny,  Kirne  und  Girbe.     Berlin,  1895.     404  pp.,  4to. 

Martiny,  Milchwirtschaftl.  Taschenbuch.  Published 
annually.      Bremen. 

Fleischmann,  Das  Molkereiwesen.  Braunschweig,  1876, 
1074  pp. 

Fleischmann,  Lehrbuch  d.  Milchwirtschaft.  Second 
edition.     Bremen,  1898.     483  pp. 

Kirchner,  Handbuch  d.  Milchwirtschaft.  Bremen,  1891, 
618  pp. 


412  GENEKAL   TOPICS. 

V.  Klenze,  Handbuchd.  Kaserei-Technik.  Bremen,  1884. 
643  pp. 

Eugling,  Praktische  Kaserei.      Bremen,  1892.     260  pp. 

Weigmann,  Die  Methoden  der  Milch  -  conservirung. 
Bremen,  1893.      72  pp. 

Duclaux,  Le  Lait.      Paris,  1887.     336  pp. 

Duclaux,  Principes  de  Laiterie.      Paris.     370  pp. 

Leze,  Les  Industries  de  Lait.      Paris,  1891.     647  pp. 

Pouriau,  La  Laiterie,  5th  ed.      Paris,  1895.     898  pp. 

A     lilST     OF     SIXTY     AGRICULTURAL.     AND 
HORTICULTURAL    BOOKS. 

Fream,  Elements  of  Agriculture.  4th  ed.  London,  1892. 
486  pp. 

Webb,  Advanced  Agriculture.     London,  1894.     672  pp. 

Mills  and  Shaw,  Public  School  Agriculture.  Toronto, 
1890.     250  pp. 

James-Craig,  Practical  Agriculture.    N.  Y.,  1899.    203  pp. 

Wallace,  Agriculture.     Philadelphia,  1895.     352  pp. 

Bailey,  Principles  of  Agriculture.      N.  Y.,  1898.     30Q  pp. 

Winslow,  Principles  of  Agriculture.    N.  Y.,  1891.    152  pp. 

Storer,  Agriculture  in  some  of  its  Relations  with  Chem- 
istry.     7th  ed.      N.  Y.,  1897.     3  vols. 

Voorhees,  First  Principles  of  Agriculture.  N.  Y.,  1896. 
212  pp. 

Roberts,     The    Fertility    of    the    Land.       N.    Y.,    1897. 

415  pp. 

Voorhees,  Fertilizers.      N.  Y.,  1S99.     335  pp. 

Warington,  Chemistry  of  the  Farm.  7th  ed.  London. 
160  pp. 

Johnson,  How  Crops  Feed.     N.  Y.     375  pp. 

Johnson,  How  Crops  Grow.      N.  Y.,  1890.     416  pp. 

Morrow  and  Hunt,  Soils  and  Crops  of  the  Farm.  Chi- 
cago, 1892.     303  pp. 

Plumb,  Indian  Corn  Culture.     Chicago,  1895.     243  pp. 

Woll,  A  Book  on  Silage.      2d  ed.     Chicago,  1900. 

Allen,  American  Cattle.      N.  Y.,  1881.      528  pp. 

Wallace,  Farm  Live  Stock.      Edinburgh,  1889.     333  pp, 


AGRICULTURAL   AND    DAIRY    LlTERATUltE.       413 

McDonald,  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Deer.  5th  ed.  London, 
1872.     745  +  91  PP- 

Warfield,  Cattle  Breeding.      Chicago,  i8go.     390  pp. 

Day,  The  Horse,  How  to  Breed  and  Rear  Him.  2d  ed. 
London,  rSgo.     453  pp. 

Pease,    Horse    Breeding     for   Farmers.       London,    1894. 

133  PP- 

Curtis,  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine.  College  Sta- 
tion, Texas,  1888.     269  pp. 

Armsby,  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding.    N.  Y.,  1887.    525  pp. 

Henry,  Feeds  and  Feeding.   Madison,  Wis.,  1898.    657  pp. 

Wolff,   Farm   Foods,    transl.  by  Cousins.     London,  1895. 

365  pp. 

Stewart,  Feeding  Animals.  5th  ed.  Lake  View,  N.  Y., 
1890.     558  pp. 

Stewart,  The  Domestic  Sheep.     Chicago,  1898.     372  pp. 

Randall,  Practical  Shepherd.     N.  Y.,  1863.     452  pp. 

Coburn,  Swine  Husbandry.     N.  Y.,  1888.     311  pp. 

Harris,  On  the  Pig.     N.  Y.,  1889.     318  pp. 

Collingwood,  The  Business  Hen.      N.  Y.,  1892.     150  pp. 

L;  Wright,  Book  of  Poultry.     London,  1891.     591  pp. 

Cook,  Bee-keeper's  Guide.  Lansing,  Mich.,  1884.  4th 
ed.     337  pp. 

Law,  Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser.  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1880. 
426  pp. 

Hayes,  Veterinary  Notes  for  Horse  Owners.  5th  ed. 
London,  1897.     733  pp. 

King,  The  Soil.     N.  Y.,  1895.     303  pp. 

Waring,  Drainage  for  Profit  and  Health.     N.  Y.     252  pp. 

Miles,  Land  Drainage.     N.  Y.,  1893.      199  pp. 

Poore,  Rural  Hygiene.     London,  1893.     321  pp. 

Wilcox,  Irrigation  Farming.     N.  Y.,  1895.     311  pp. 

Goff,  Principles  of  Plant  Culture.  2d  ed.  Madison, 
Wis.,  1898.     276  pp. 

Crozier  and  Henderson,  How  the  Farm  Pays.  N.  Y., 
1884.     400  pp. 

Bailey,  The  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book.  3d  ed.  N.  Y., 
1896.     302  pp. 

Bailey,  The  Nursery  Book.     2d  ed.    N.  Y.,  1892.    304  pp, 


414  GEXEHAL   TOPICS. 

Barry,  Fruit  Garden.     N.  Y.,  1889.     516  pp. 

Landreth,  Market  Gardening  and  Farm  Notes.  N.  Y., 
1893.     215  pp. 

Card,  Bush-Fruits.     New  York,  1899.     549  pp. 

Fuller,  Grape  Culturist.     N.  Y.      281  pp. 

Henderson,  Practical  Floriculture.      N.  Y.,  1891.     325  pp. 

Weed,  Insects  and  Insecticides.  Hanover,  N.  H.,  1891. 
281  pp. 

Lodeman,  Spraying  of  Plants.      N.  Y.,  1896.     399  pp. 

Fuller,  Practical  Forestry.      N.  Y.,  1891.     299  pp. 

jarchow,  Forest  Planting.      N.  Y. ,  1893.     237  pp. 

Clarke,  Modern  Farm  Buildings.     London,  1895.    147  pp. 

Barn  Plans  and  Outbuildings.  Orange  Judd  Co.,  N.  Y., 
1893.     235  pp. 

Sanders,  Practical  Hints  on  Barn  Building.  Chicago, 
1393.     284  pp. 

Adams,  The  Modern  Farmer.  San  Francisco,  1899. 
662  pp. 

Bennett,  Farm  Law.     Portland,  Me.,  1880.     120  pp. 

A3IERICAN    DAIRY   PAPERS. 

American  Cheese-Maker.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  Monthly, 
50  cents. 

American  Dairyman.      New  York  City.     Weekly,  $1.50. 

Bulletin  American  Devon  Cattle  Club.  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 
Monthly,  50  cents. 

Chicago  Dairy  Produce.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $1.50. 

Creamery  Gazette.     Des  Moines,  Iowa.      Monthly,  $1.00. 

Creamery  Journal.     Waterloo,  la.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

Creamery  Patron.     Decorah,  Iowa. 

Dairy  and  Creamery.  Chicago,  111.  Semi-monthly,  50 
cents. 

Dairy  World.     Chicago,  111.     Monthly,  §1.00. 

Elgin  Dairy  Report.      Elgin,  111.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Jersey  Bulletin.     Indianapolis,  Ind.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Hoard's  Dairyman.    Fort  Atkinson,  Wis.    Weekly,  $1.00. 

Iloh.tein-Friesian  Register.  Brattleboro,  Vt.  Semi- 
monthly, $1.50. 


AGRICULTURAL   AND    DAIRY    LITERATURE.        415 

The  Milk  News.     Chicago,  IlL      Monthly,  $i.oo. 

The  Milk  Reporter.  Deckertown,  N.  Y.  Monthly, 
$i.oo. 

New  York  Produce  Review  and  American  Creamery. 
New  York  City.     Weekly,  $i.oo. 

The  Practical  Dairyman.  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Monthly, 
50  cents. 

St.  Paul  Dairy  Reporter.  St.  Paul,  Minn.  Weekly, 
$1.00. 

The  Western  Creamery.  San  Francisco,  Cal.  Monthly, 
li.oo. 

31AIX    FOREIGN    DAIRY    PAPERS. 

The  Dairy.    144  Fleet  Street,  London,  England.    Monthly,  3s. 

'I  he  Dairyman.  17  New  Castle  Street,  Farringdon  St.,  Lon- 
don, England. 

The  Dairy  World  and  British  Dairy  Farmer.  310  Strand, 
London,  England.     Monthly,  3s. 

Nordisk  Mejeri-Tidning.    Stockholm,  Sweden.    Weekly,  5  kr. 

Malkeritidende.     Odense,  Denmark.     Weekly. 

Milch-Zeitung.     Bremen,  Germany.     Weekly,  8  mk. 

Deutsche  Tuolkerei-Zeitung.  Berlin,  Germany.  Weekly 
8  uik. 

Molkerei-Zeitung.      Hildesneim,  Germany.     Weekly,  6  mk. 

L'Industrie  Laitiere  33  Rue  J.  J.  Rousseau,  Paris,  France 
Weekly,  20  fr. 

La  Laiterie.     18  Rue  des  Martyrs,  Paris.     Bi-weekly,  13.  fr 

Schweizerische  Molkerei  Zeitung.    Zurich.    Weekly,  6.60  it 

Die  Milch  Industrie.     Berne.  Switzerland. 


416  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

31AIN    AMERICAN    AGRICULTURAL,   AND    HORTI- 
CULTURAL   PAPERS. 

Agricultural  Epitomist.     Indianapolis,  Ind.     Monthly,  50 
cents. 

American  Agriculturist.     New  York  City.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

American  Bee  Journal.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

American  Cultivator.      Boston,  Mass.     Weekly,  $2.50. 

American  Farmer.     Chicago,  111.     Semi  monthly,  50  cents. 

American  Fertilizer.     Philadelphia,  Pa.      Monthly,  $2.00. 

American     Gardening.     New   York    City.        Semi-monthly, 
|i.oo. 

American  Grange  Bulletin.     Cincinnati,  O.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

American  Poultry  Journal.     Chicago,  IT.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

American  Poultry  Yard.      Hartford,  Conn.     Weekly,  $1.50. 

American  Sheep  Breeder  and  Wool  Grower.     Chicago,  111. 
Monthly,  $1.00. 

American  Svvine  Herd,     Chicago,  111.     Monthly,  50  cents. 

American  Veterinary  Review.     New  York  City.     Monthly, 
$3.00 

Acker-  und  Gartenbau  Zeitung.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Breeders'  Gazette.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Breeders'  Journal.     Beecher,  111.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

California  Cultivator  and  Poultry  Keeper.  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Monthly,  $1.00. 

Colman's  Rural  World.     St.  Louis,  Mo.     Weekly,  |i.oo. 

Colorado  Farmer.     Denver,  Colo.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Connecticut  Farmer.      Hartford,  Conn.     Weekly,  $1.50. 

The    Cultivator    and   Country   Gentleman.     Albany,  N.  Y 
Weekly,  $2.50. 

The  Cultivator.     Omaha,  Neb.     Semi-monthly,  50  cents. 

1  he    Dakota    Farmer.      Aberdeen,    S.    D.      Semi-monthly, 
$1,00. 

Drover's  Journal.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  61.50. 
Farm  and   Fireside.     Springfield,  O.     Semi-monthly,   50 
cents. 

Farm  and  Home.    Chicago,  and  Springfield,  Mass.   Semi- 
monthly, 50  cents. 

The  Farmer.     St.  Paul,  Minn.      Semi-monthly,  50  cents. 


AGRICULTURAL   AND    DAIRY    LITERATURE.        417 
The   Farmers'  Advocate.     London,  Ont.     Semi-monthly, 

$1.00. 

Farmer's  Call.     Quincy,  111.     Weekly,  50  cents. 

Farmers'  Home.     Dayton,  O.     Weekly,  50  cents. 

The  Farmers' Magazine.  Springfield,  111.   Monthly,  $2.00. 

Farmers'  Review.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly.  $1.25. 

The  Farmer's  Voice.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Farm,  Field,  and  Fireside.  Chicago,  111.  Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Farm,  Field,  and  Stockman.     Chicago,  111.    Weekly,  $1.00. 

Farm  News.     Springfield,  Ohio.     Monthly,  50  cents. 

Farm,  Stock,  and  Home.  Minneapolis,  Minn.  Semi-month- 
ly, 50  cents. 

Farming.     Toronto,  Canada.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

The  Farm  Journal.     Philadelphia,  Pa.     Monthly,  50  cents. 

Florida  Agriculturist.     De  Land,  Fla.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Garden  and  Forest,     New  York  City.     Weekly,  $4.00. 

Gardening.      Chicago.  111.     Semi-monthly,  $2.00. 

Horse  Review.     Chicago,  III.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Indiana  Farm.er.      Indianapolis,  Ind.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Industrial  American,     Lexington,  Ky.     Semi-monthly, $i.Oc. 

Iowa  Farmer.     Cedar  Rapids,  la.     Monthly,  50  cents. 

Iowa  Homestead.     Des  Moines,  la.     Weekly,  $1  00, 

Irrigation  Age.     Chicago,  111.     Monthly,  $2.00. 

Journal  of  Agriculture.     St.  Louis,  Mo,     Weekly,  $1,00. 

Journal  of  Agriculture  Illustrated.  Montreal,  Canada. 
Monthly,  $1.00, 

Kansas  Farmer.     Topeka,  Kan,     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Kentucky  Stock  Farm.     Lexington,  Ky.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Live  Stock  Indicator.     Kansas  City,  Mo.     Weekly,  $1.00, 

Live  Stock  and  Farm  Journal.  Toronto,  Canada.  Monthly , 
$1.00. 

Live  Stock  Report.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly. 

Live  Stock  Review.     Chicago,  111,     Weekly,  $2.00. 

Louisiana  Planter  and  Sugar  Manufacturer.  New  Orleans. 
La.     Weekly,  $3.00. 

Maryland  Farmer,      Baltimore,  Md.     Monthly,  50  cents. 

Meehan's  Monthly,     Germantown,  Pa.      Monthly,  $2.00 

Michigan  Farmer.     Detroit,  Mich.     Weekly,  $1.00, 


418  GENERAL   TOPICS. 

Midland  Poultry  Journal.  Kansas  City,  Mo.  Monthly,  50 
cents. 

Mirror  and  Farmer.     Manchester,  N.  H.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Montana  Stockman  and  Farmer.  Helena,  Mont.  Weekly, 
$2.00. 

National  Stockman  and  Farmer.  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Weekly, 
$1  50. 

Nebraska  Farmer.     Lincoln,  Neb.     Weekly,  $1.25. 

Nebraska  Homestead.     Omaha,  Neb.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

New  England  Farmer.     Boston,  Mass.     Weekly,  $2.00. 

New    England    Homestead.      Springfield,    Mass.      Weekly, 

$I.GO. 

Northwestern  Agriculturist.  Minneapolis,  Minn.  Semi- 
monthly, 50  cents. 

Ohio  Farmer.     Cleveland,  Ohio.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Ohio  Poultry  Journal.     Dayton,  Ohio,     Monthly,  $1.00. 

Orange  Country  Farmer.  Port  Jervis,  N.  Y.  Weekly,  $1.00. 

Orange  Judd  Farmer.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Pacific  Rural  Press.     San  Francisco,  Cal.     Weekly,  $3.00. 

Poultry  Monthly.     Albany,  N.  Y.     Monthly,  $1.25. 

Poultry  World.      Hartford,  Conn.     Monthly,  I1.25. 

Practical  Farmer.     Philadelphia,  Pa,     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Prairie  Farmer.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Ranch  and  Range.      Seattle,  Wash.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Rural  Canadian.     Toronto,  Canada.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

Rural  Californian.     Los  Angeles,  Cal.     Monthly,  $1.50. 

Rural  Life.     Waterloo,  la.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Rural  New  Yorker.     New  York  City.     Weekly,  $1.00. 

Skordemannen  (Swedish).  Minneapolis,  Minn.  Semi- 
monthly, 75  cents. 

Southern  Cultivator.    Atlanta,  Ga.    Monthly,  $1.00. 

Southern  Live  Stock  Journal.  Starkville,  Miss.  Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Southern  Planter.     Richmond,  Va.     Monthly,  $1.00. 

Swine-Breeders'  Journal.  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Semi-monthly, 
f  i.oo. 

Texas  Farm  and  Ranch.     Dallas,  Tex.     Weekly,  $1.00. 


AGRICULTURAL    AND    DAIRY   LITERATURE.       419 

Texas  Stockman.     San  Antonio,  Tex.     Weekly,  $2.00. 
Turf,  Field,  and  Farm.     New  York  City.     Weekly,  f  5-oo. 
Wallace's  Farmer.     Des  Moines,  la.     Weekly,  $1.00. 
Western  Agriculturist  and  Live  Stock  Journal.     Quincy,  111. 
Semi-monthly,  $1.00. 

Western  Resources.     Lincoln,  Neb.     Weekly,  $2.00. 
Western  Rural.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $1.00. 
Western  Swine  Herd.     Geneseo,  111.     Monthly,  50  cents. 
Williamette  Farmer.     Salem,  Ore.     Weekly,  $2.00. 
Wisconsin  Agriculturist.   Racine,  Wis.  Weekly,  50  cents. 
Wisconsin  Farmer.     Madison,  Wis.     Weekly,  $1.00. 
Wool  Markets  and  Sheep.     Chicago,  111.     Weekly,  $t.oo. 


INDEX. 


Aberdeen  Angus  cattle,  22 

Accidents,  what  to  do  in  case  of,  339 

Acidity  of  milk  or  cream,  determination  of,  by  alkaline  tablet  test,  270 

Manns'   test,   272 
Acidity  of  skim-milk,  milk,  and  cream,  relation  of  fat  content  to,  275^ 
Acre-foot  of  water,   149 
Adulteration  of  milk,  236 
Age  of  farm  animals,  determination  of,  26 
Agricultural  and  dairy  literature,  410 

horticultural   books,   list  of,   412 
papers,  main  American,  416 

imports  and  exports,   1897-98,  393 
Agricultural  associations,  constitutions  of,  321 

books,  412 

clubs,  constitutions  and  by-laws  of,  321 

educational  institutions  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  402 

engineering,   139 

population,  number,  and  classification,  373 

products,  average  farm  price  of,  1890-189S,  382 

schools  and  colleges  in  the  United  States,  statistics  of,  404 
Alkaline  tablet  test  of  acidity  in  milk  or  cream,  270 
American  trotter,  the,  19 

agricultural   colleges,  402 

experiment    stations,   408,   409 

dairy  schools,  407 

veterinary  colleges,  406 
Apiarian  industry  in  the  United  States,  importance  of,  392 
Arbor  Day,  dates  of,  in  different  states  and  territories,  117 
Ash  of  cows'  milk  and  colostrum,  composition  of,  223 
Atavism,  40 
Ayrshire  cattle,  194 
Babcock  milk  test,  the,  224 

application  of,  226 
points  to  be  watched,  225 
Beef  cattle,  22 

proportion  of,  to  live  weight  of  cattle,  178 
Beet  sugar  production  in  the  United  States,  1898-99,  391 
Berkshire  pigs,  25 
Board  of  Health  (N.  Y.)  lactometer,  226,  227 

421 


422  INDEX. 

Boiler,  care  of,  252 

power,  255 
Bordeaux  mixture,  99 

I'ioyd,  John,  Boyd's  process  of  cream  ripening,  267 
r.rown-Swiss  cattle,  206 
liutter,  261 

American  premium,   analyses  of,  274 

by  deep,  cold  setting  and  Cooley  system,  269 
shallow-pan   creaming,   269 

cheese  and  condensed-milk  factories  in  the  United  States,  389,  390 

composition  of,  273 

conversion  factor  for  calculating  yield  of,  275 

domestic  exports  of,  1870-1898,  398 

English    scale   of   points  for  judging,   279 

foreign    samples   of,    composition    of,   274 

fresh,   composition   of,  274 

from   separator  cream,  270 

foreign,  analyses  of,  274 

formula  for  calculating  yield  of,  275 

loss  of,  through  inefficient  skimming,  251 

makers,  score  in  judging  proficiency  of,  279 

making,   261 

distribution  of  milk  ingredients  in,  278 
use  of  pure  cultures  in,  263 

milk,  composition  of,  239 

milk  required  for  making  i  lb.  of,  277,  278 

records,  official,  212 

salted,  composition  of,  274 

score  for  judging,  278 

sour  cream,  composition  of,  273 

sweet  cream,   composition  of,  273 

unsalted,  composition  of,  274 

yield  from   cream  of  different  richness,  275 

milk  of  different  richness,  276,  308 

yield  of,  corresponding  to  yields  of  fat,  per  day  and  per  week,  275a 
By-laws  and  rules  for  co-operative  cheese  factories,  316 

creamery   associations,   313 
Caldwell,  Prof.  W.  H.,  Guernsey  cattle,  186 
California  weir   table,    154 
Canada,  area  and  population,  367 

dairy  schools,  407 

experiment  stations,  409 

exports  of  dairy  products,   1868-1895,  398 

meteorological  data,  372 

Ministers  of  Agriculture,  401 

number  of  farm  animals,  1891,  387 

production   of  various  crops,   1891,  381 

veterinary  colleges,  406 


INDEX.  423 

Carcass,  a  steer's,  176 

of  farm  animals,  constituents  of,   181 
Cattle,   determination  of  age  of,  26 

proportion  of  beef  to  live  weight,  178 
the  various  parts  of,  180 
Cattle  foods,  classification,  9 

comparative  value,  16,   17 
Centrifugal  skim-milk,  per  cent  fat  in,  246 
Cereals,  prevention  of  smut  in,  107 

prices  per  bushel  and  per  ton,  18 
Cheddar  cheese,  formulas  for  finding  yield  of,  293 

losses  in  curing,  295 

manufacture  of,  281 
Cheese,  butter,   and   condensed-milk   factories   in   the   United   States 

in  1890,  389,  390 
Cheese,  composition  of,  292 

curing-rooms,  determination  of  humidity  in,  288 

domestic  exports  of,   1870-1898,  398 

English  scale  for  judging,  291 

factories,  co-operative,  by-laws  and  rules  for,  316 
management,  300 
whey  to  be  allowed  patrons  of,  299 

loss  in  weight  during  curing,   295 

manufacture   of,   281,   283 
Cheese  making,  distribution  of  ingredients,  293 

fertilizing   ingredients,    293 
use  of  pure  cultures,  263,  266 

score  for  judging,  291 

synopsis  of  manufacture  of  principal  varieties,  298 

varieties  and  analyses,  292 

yield  from  100  lbs.  of  milk,  294,  296 
Chester  White  pigs,  25 
Cheviot  sheep,  24 

Chinch-bugs,  fighting  the,  by  means  of  kerosene  emulsion,  108 
Churning,  269 

Cisterns,  capacity  of,  154,  155 
Clark,  W.  G.,  M.D.C.,  Common  diseases  of  farm  animals,  41 

Veterinary  remedies  and  doses,  51 
Cleveland  Bay  horses,  20 
Clover,  winter-killed,  replacing,  68 
Clovers,  notes  on  adaptability  and  uses,  91 
Clydesdale  horses,  20 
Coins,  foreign,  value  of,  365 
Colostrum,  composition  of,  223 

ash,  composition  of,  223 
Components  of  cows'  milk,  calculation  of,  222 

Composite  samples  of  milk,  directions  for  taking  and  preserving,  300 
Composition  and  weight  of  ordinary  crops  per  acre,  66 


424  INDEX. 

Composition  of  ash  of  cow's  milk  and  colostrum,  223 
butter,  2'j2,i  274 
colostrum,  223 

commercial   fertilizing   materials,    132 
cows'  milk,  variations  in,  221 
cream,  239 
dairy  products,  239 
dairy  salt,  280 

diflferent  parts  of  same  milkings,  221 
feeding  stuflfs,  i 
live  animals,   i?o 
milk  of  different  breeds,  213,  214 
morning  and  evening  milk,  221 
morning,  noon,   and  evening  milk,  221 
soils,   124 

sweet-  and   sour-cream  butter,  273 
various  kinds  of  milk,  220 
Concentrated  feeding  stuffs,  weight  of,   16 
Condensed-milk,    composition,    239 

butter,  and  cheese  factories  in  the  United  States  in  1890,  389,  390 
Constitution   and  by-laws  of  agricultural  clubs,   321 
road  leagues,  328 
village-improvement  societies,  326 
Contagious  diseases,  rules  for  treatment  in  case  of,   59 
Conversion  factor  for  calculating  yield   of  butter,   275 

of  U.  S.  weights  and  measures  to  metric,  and  vice  versa,  351,  353 

foreign  money  to  dollars  and  cents,  366 
table  for  calculating  fertilizing  ingredients,  138 
pounds  of  milk  into  quarts,  238 
quarts  of  milk  into  pounds,  238 
Cooling  milk  or  cream,   water  or  ice  required,  260 
Corn,  cost  per  acre  of  raising,  382 
Corn  on  the  cob,  measurement  of,  in  cribs,  317 
Cost  of  irrigating  canals  and   ditches,    152 

raising  wheat,  corn,  and  cotton,  per  acre,  382 
Cotswold  sheep,  24 
Cotton,  average  cost  per  acre,  382 
Cows,  buying  and  selling  by  test?  of  the  milk,  215 
care  of,  216,  312 
diseases  of,  45 

premium,  yields  of  milk  and  fat  at  state  fairs,  211 
Craig,  Prof.  John  A.,   Characteristics  of  breeds  of  live  stock,  19 
Cream,   application  of  viscogen   in,  258 
calculation  of  per  cent  fat  in,  241 
composition  of,  239 

formula  for  finding  fat  content  of,  244 
gatherers,  instructions  to,  318 
ice  required  for  cooling,  260 


INDEX.  425 

Cream,  preservation  of.  by  heat,  256 

quantity  of  water  or  ice   required   for   cooling,   260 
ripening,    Boyd's   process   of,   267 
separators,   capacity   of,  248 
economy  of,  247 
handling  and  care  of,  245 
list  of,   242 

power  required  for  skimming  1000  lbs.  milk,  247 
use  of  alkaline  tablet  test  with,  270 
yield  from  milk  of  different  richness,  240 
Creameries  and  cheese  factories,  directions  for  making  dividends  in. 
307 
suggestions  to  patrons  of,  311 
Creamery  associations,  co-operative,  by-laws  and  rules  for,  313 

management  of,  300 
Crops,  farm,  enemies  of,  99 

fertilizing   materials  in,   128,    129 
soiling,  67,  68 

various,  yields   per  acre,   75 

weight  and  average  composition  of,  per  acre,  66 
Curd   test,   the   Wisconsin,   284 
Curing  of  cheese,  losses  in,  295 

rooms,    humidity   in,   288 
Cuts  of  meat,  diagrams  of,  176,   177 
Dairy  breeds,  composition  of  milk  from,  213,  214 
results  of  tests  of,  209,  210,  212 
yield  of  milk  of,  English  standards  for,  213 
cattle,  origin  and  characteristics  of  breeds  of,   183 
cows,  183 

methods  of  judging  the  value  of,  214,  215 
rations  for,  12,  14 

standards  for  annual  yield  of  milk  and  fat,  213 
yield  of  milk  and  fat  from,  208 
farms,  regulations  for  the  government  of,  59 
papers,  American,  414 
main  foreign,  415 
products,  American,  analyses  of,  220 
composition  of,  239 
exports  of,  from   Canada,    1868-1895,  398 

the  United  States,  1870-1898,  398 
fertilizing  ingredients  in,  22^ 
legal  standards  for,  234 
produced   on  farms,    1890,  388 
rules,  fifty,  216 
salt,  analyses,  280 

schools  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  407 
statistics  for  the  United  States,  1890,  385 
Dairies  and  dairy  farms,  regulations  for  the  government  of,  59 


426  IKDEX. 

Dairying,  183 

more  important  works  on,  410 
Dates  of  killing  frost,   369 

Days  between  dates  within  two  years,  numbe-r  of,  346 
Decker,  John  W.,  How  American  cheese  is  made,  281 
Detection  of  bad  milk,  284 
Devon  cattle,  202 

Dewey,  L.  H.,  Table  of  noxious  weeds,  94 
Dietaries,    168,    175 

daily,    calculation    of,    168 
Dietary  standards,   168,   175 
Digestion  coefficients,  2,  6 
Dimensions,  interior,  of  farm  buildings,  163 
Directory  of  official   agricultural   institutions,  400 
Diseases  of  farm  animals,  41 
Disinfectants,  list  of,  58 
Disinfection  of  stables,  rules  for,  59 
Distance  table  for  planting  vegetables,  72 
tree-planting,    74,    116 
Dividends,  directions  for  making,  in  creameries  and  cheese  factories, 

307 
Dorset  sheep,  24 

Doses,  veterinary,   graduation  of,  51 
Draining  land,  reasons  for,    139 

Drains,  of  various  dimensions,  earth  removed  for,  143 
Duroc-Jersey   swine,  25 
Dutch  belted  cattle,  204 
Duty  of  water,   148 
Economy,  pecuniary,  of  food,  172 
Engine  management,  255 
Engineering,   agricultural,    139 
English  milking  trials,  results   of,  212 
Essex  pigs,  25 

Exhaustion  of  fertilizers,   134 

Exhibition  purposes,  preservation  of  soft  fruits  for,  81 
Exports,  agricultural,  in  the  U.  S.,  1897-98,  393 
Fair  tests  of  dairy  cows,  211,  214 
Farm  animals,  body  temperature  of,  28 

characteristics   of,    19 

common  diseases  of,  41 

constituents   of  carcass,    181 

determination   of  age   of,   2.^ 

estimated  number  on  farms  and  ranches,   1896,  383 

food  requirements  of,   16 

heat  in,  duration  and  frequency,  28 

in   Canada   in    1891,   387 

in  the  United   States  in    1870- 1895,   387 

live,  composition  of,   180 


INDEX.  427 

Farm  animals,  standard  rations  for,   lo 
buildings,   interior   dimensions   of,    163 
crops,   enemies  of,  99 

products,    fertilizing   constituents   of,    126 
cost  of  hauling,  160 
yield  of,  per  acre,  71 
Farmyard    manure,    amounts    required    to    replace    ingredients    ab- 
stracted  by   various   crops,    130 
Farmers,  forestry  for,   109 
Farmers'   institutes,   superintendents  of,   409 
Farming  population  of  the  United  States,  372 
Farming,    approximate    losses    of    fertilizing    materials    in    different 

systems,   123 
Farms  in  the  United  States,  statistics  concerning,  373,  375 
Farrington,  Prof.  E.  H.,  The  alkaline  tablet  test  for  acidity  in  milk 

or  cream,  270 
Fat  content  of  skim-milk,   mil"k,   and  cream,   relation   of,   to  acidity, 

27Sb 
Fat,   relation  of,  to  casein  and  other  solids  of  milk,  222 
Fattening  animals,   comparative  results  obtained  with,   179 
Feeding  and  general  care  of  poultry,  31 

standards  for  farm   animals,   10 
Feeding  stuflfs,  chart  showing  manurial  value  of,  125 
composition  of,   i,  3 
concentrated,  classification,  9 

weight  of,  16 
fertilizing  constituents,   126 
valuation  of,  18 
Feed  rations,  calculation  of  components  of,   12 
Fermentation   tests,   284,   286 

Fernow,   Prof.   B.   E.,   Forestry  for  farmers,   109 
Fertilizer  industry  of  the  United  States,  399 

laws,  states  having,  136 
Fertilizing  constituents  of  feeding  stuffs  and  farm  products,   126 
materials,    commercial,    composition    of,    132 
conversion   table  for  calculation  of,    138 
equivalent   quantities  of,   135 
in  dairy  products,  223 
different  crops,  129 

raw  materials  and  chemicals,  trade  value  of,  137 
losses  of,  in  different  systems  of  farming,   123 
voided  by  animals,    131 
withdrawn   by   various   crops,    128,    129 
Fertilizers,   exhaustion   of,    134 
imports  and  exports,  399 
valuation   of,    136 
Field  crops,  62 
Fish,  N.   S.,   Brown-Swiss  cattle,  206 


428  INDEX. 

Flag  signals  adopted  by  the  U.   S.  Weather  Bureau,  explanation  of, 

330 
Food,  economy,  167 

fuel   value,    166 
Foods,  human,   165 

Food  materials,  human,  composition  of,  169,  170 
nutrients  furnished  for  25  cents  in,  173 
pecuniary  economy  of,   172 
Foreign  coins,  value  of,  365 
Forestry,  109 

fire  laws  in  the  United  States,  118 
for  farmers,  109 
Formalin  treatment  for  the  prevention  of  smut  of  cereal  grains  and 

of  potato  scab,   105,   107 
Formulas  for  calculation  of  total  solids  in  milk,  230 
yield   of   butter,   275 
converting  degrees  Centigrade  or  Reaumur  to  Fahren- 
heit, and  vice  versa,  357 
finding  adulteration  of  milk,  236 
fat  content  of  cream,  244 

separator  skim-milk,  252 
quantity  of  water  or  ice  required  for  cooling 

milk  or  cream,  260 
yield  of  Cheddar  cheese,  293 
Frederiksen,  J.  D.,  Handling  and  care  of  cream  separators,  245 
French  coach  horses,  20 

Frost,  killing,  dates  of  average  and  actual,  369 
Fruit  trees,   distances  apart,   74 
longevity,  74 

tirne   required   to  bear  fruit,   74 
Fruits,  soft,  preservation  of,  for  exhibition  purposes,  81 
Fuel  value  of  food  materials,   166 

woods,  114 
Fungous  diseases  of  plants,  treatments  for,  99 
Galloway  cattle,  22 
Gerber  fermentation  test,  the,  286 
Germination   standards  of  seeds,   89 
Gestation  calendar,  29 
Goff,    Prof.    E.    S.,    Treatments    for    injurious    insects    and    fungou. 

diseases  of  plants,  99 
Government  land  measures,  358 
Grass  seeds,  amounts  to  sow  per  acre,  89 

number,   weight,   and   cost   of,   89 
Grasses,   notes   on   adaptability   and   uses   of,   91 
Guernsey  cattle,  186 
Gurler,  H.  B.,  Butter-making,  261 
Hackney  horses,  20 
Hampshire   sheep,   23 


Hand  separators,  list  of,  242 

Hauling  farm  produce,  cost  of,  160 

Hawks  and  owls,  beneficial  and  harmful,  332 

Hay,  reckoning  amount  and  value  of,  359 

Hay,   seed  mixtures  for,  63 

Herd  milk,  ranges  in  composition  of,  237 

Heredity,  36 

Hereford  cattle,  22 

Hicks,   Gilbert  H.,   Seed-testing  for  the  farmer,  84 

Highland   sheep,   25 

Hills,  number  of,   on  an  acre  of  land,  70,  71 

Hog   cholera,   suppression   of,   55 

Holidays,   legal,  Z37 

Holstein-Friesian   cattle,    190 

Honey  and  beeswax  in  the  United   States,  production  of,  392 

Horn-fly,   remedies   for,   57 

Horse,  determination  of  age,  26 

labor  done  by,  61 
Horse-power,  256 

required  for  separating  1000  lbs.  milk,  247 
Horses,  diseases  of,  41 

heavy,  20 

light,   19 
Horticulture,  72 
Horticultural   books,  412 

products,  best  temperatures  for  preserving,  81 
Hot-water  treatment   for   smut,    105,    107 
Hoxie,  S.,  Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  190 
Human  foods,  165 

composition,  165,  170 
Humidity  in  cheese-curing  rooms,  288 

relative,  in  curing-rooms,  table  showing,  289 
Ice  required  for  cooling  milk  or  cream,  260 
Imports,  agricultural,  in  the  U.   S.,   1897-98,  393 
Inches   reduced  to   decimals   of  a  foot,   352 
Injurious  insects,  treatments  for,  99 
Interest  tables,  344 
Irrigated  land,  value  of,  150 

Irrigating  canals  and   ditches,  cost  per  mile,   152 
Irrigation,   148 

efficiency  of  windmills  for,   145 

pipes,   cost  of,   152 
Jersey  cattle,   183 
Kephir,  composition  of,  239 
Kerosene  emulsion,   100,   108 

Kilograms   converted   into   pounds   Avoird.,  35s 
Koumiss,  composition  of,  239 
Lactometer,  22^ 


43v)  IXDEX. 

Land,    areas   of  appropriated,    vacant,    and    reserved,    in    the   United 
States,   373 

measures,  government,  358 
Legal   holidays,  337 
Legal   standards   for   dairy   products,   234 

weights  of  grain,   seeds,   etc.,  362 
Leicester   sheep,   24 
Lincoln  sheep,  24 
Live  animals,  composition  of,   182 

mineral  matters  in   100  parts,   182 
Live  stock,  characteristic  breeds  of,  19 
London   purple,   100 
Loss  of  butter  from  inefficient   skimming,  251 

cheese  in  curing,  295 
Main  pipe,  rule  for  obtaining  size  of,  141 
Manns'  test,  directions  for  use  of,  2-]2 
Manures,   amount   and   quality  produced   by   stock,    130 

and  fertilizers,   122 

composition,    amount,    and    value    of,    from    different    farm    ani- 
mals, 130,  131 

valuation   of,   136 
Manurial  value  of  feeding  stuffs,  chart  showing,   125 
Maple  syrup,  specific  gravity,   sugar  content,  and  boiling-point,  TJ 

sugar   obtained   from,   78 
Marshall  rennet  test,  281 
Meat,  diagrams  of  cuts,   176,   177 
Merino  sheep,  23 

Mineral  matters  in   100  parts  of  live  animals,   182 
Milch   cows,   diseases   of,   45 
Milk,   adulteration,  236 

ash,   composition,   223 

average    composition,    with    variations,    221 

bad,   detection   of,   284 

calculations  of  components,  222 
total    solids,    230 

care   of,  218 

composition   of,   of  different  breeds,   213,  214 
various   kinds,   220 

fertilizing  ingredients   in,   223 

gatherers,    instructions    to,    318 

ingredients,  distribution  of,   in  butter-making,  278 
cheese-making,    293 

morning   and   evening,   composition  of,   221 

morning,  noon,  and  evening,  composition  of,  221 

payment  of,   at  creameries   and   cheese   factories,   302 

power  required   for   skimming   1000   lbs.,   247 

preservation   of,   by  heat,   256,   259 

price   of,    per    100   lbs.,   305 


IN-DEX.  431 

Milk,  quantity  of  water  or  ice  required  for  cooling,  260 

records,   official,   212 

relation  of  fat  to  casein  and  other  solids  of,  222 

relative  cheese  value  of,  296 
Milk  required  for  making  i   lb.   of  butter,  277,   278 

skimming  and  watering  of,  236,  2n 

solids,  calculation  of,  230 

calculation  of  sp.  gr.  of,  233 

specific  gravity  of,   temperature  correction   tables  for,  228 

standards,  234 

table  for  converting  pounds  of,  into  quarts,  and  vice  versa,  23S 
quarts  of,  into  pounds,  238 
finding  average  per  cent  of  fat  in,  309 

testing,  a  chapter  on,  224 

use  of  alkaline  tablet  test  with,   270 

variation  in  composition,  22,-j 

watering  of,  236 

yield  and  composition  of,  of  different  breeds,  213 
Milking   trials,    English,   results   of,   212 

rules  for,  217 

utensils,   care   of,   219 
Milkings,  composition  of  different  parts  of  same,  221 
Miner's  inch,   149 
Money,  conversion  table,  366 

foreign,  value  of,  365 

order,   fees,   348 
Monrad  rennet  test,   the,   281 
Mutton,    diagrams   of   cuts,    177 

sheep,   2J, 
Nails,  cut,  table  of,  164 
New  York   Board  of  Health   lactometer,  comparison  with   Quevenne 

lactometer,  zz-j 
Nitrogen  voided  by  animals,    131 

Noer,  J.,   M.D.,  Whkt  to  do  in  case  of  accidents,  339 
Noxious   weeds,   table  of,   94 
Number  of  plants  for  an  acre  of  ground,  70,  71 

trees  on  an  acre,   113 
Nutrients,  165 

furnished  for  25   cents  in  food   materials,   173 
Nutritive   ratio,   2 
Oats-smut,  prevention  of,   105 
Official  milk  and  butter  records,  213 
Orchard-spraying    outfit,    104 
Ounces  reduced  to  decimals  of  a  pound,  352 
Oxford    sheep,    24 

Pasteurization  of  milk  and  cream,  256 
Pastures,  permanent,   seed  mixtures  for,  63 
Patents,   how  issued,  333 


432  INDEX. 

Patrons,   rules  for,   318 

Payment  of  milk  at  creameries  and  cheese  factories,  302 

Percheron    horses,   21 

Perishable   goods,   temperatures   injuring,   79 

Pickrell,  J.   H.,   Shorthorns  as  dairy  cows,   196 

Pipes,   carrying   capacity   of,    151 

cost  of,   for   irrigation,    152 

straigTit,  flow  of  water  through,  151 
Plant  diseases,  treatments  for,  99 

number  of,  for  an  acre  of  ground,  70,  71 
Plants,   temperatures  injurious  to,  80 
Plowing,   performance  of  team   in,   161 
Poisoning,    antidotes   in   cases   of,   341 
Poland   China  pigs,  25 

Population,   agricultural,   number  and   classification,  373 
Pork,  diagram  of  cuts  of,  177 
Postage,    domestic,   347 

foreign,  347 
Potatoes,  relation  of  sp.  gr.,  dry  matter,  and  starch  content  of,  76 

prevention  of  scab,   107 
Poultry  and  egg  product  in  the  United  States,  1880  and  1890,  392 

breeds   of,  36 

feeding  and  care  of,  31 
Pounds  converted  into  kilograms,  352 
Power  required  for   discharge   of  water,    148 
to  raise  water  from  deep  wells,  152 

separators,  list  of,  243 
Precipitation,   normal,   in   Canada,   372 

the    United    States,   371 
Preservation  of  milk  and  cream  by  heat,  256 

soft  fruits  for   exhibition   purposes,   81 
Prevention  of  oats-smut,   105 

smuts   of   cereal    grains   and   scab   of   potatoes,    107 
Pumps,   capacity   of,    153 

Pure  cultures,  use  of,  in  butter  and  cheese  making,  263 
Purity  standards  of  seeds,  86 
Quevenne   lactometer,   226 
Rainfall,   144 
Rations  for  dairy  cows,  practical,  12,  14 

standard,    10 
Reciprocals  of  numbers,  354 

Record,  highest,  for  yield  of  fat  by  dairy  cows,  211 
Records,  milk  and  butter,  official,  212 
Red-polled  cattle,    199 
Rennet  test,  250 

Richards,  H.  B.,  Dutch  belted  cattle,  204 

Richter,  Prof.  A.  W.,  Steam  boiler  and  engine  management,  252 
Road  leagues,  constitution  of,  294 


INDEX.  4a3 

Road-making,  15S 

Roads,  drainage,  155 

Roads,  different  kinds  of,  force  required  to  draw  a  load  on,  157 

good,  importance  of,   157 

gravel   for,    156 

repairs,   156 

stone   required   for   maintenance   of,    143 

weight   required   to   move   vehicles   on,    158 
Ropes,  strength  of,  361 

Rnssell,  Prof.  H.  L.,  Preservation  of  milk  and  cream  by  heat,  256 
Salt,    American    dairy,    analyses   of,    280 
Second-foot  of  water,  149 
Seed  mixtures  for  grass  and  clover,  64 

hay  and  permanent   pastures,  63,  65 

quantity  required  per  acre,  62 

testing  for  the  farmer,  84 

vegetable,   quantity  required   per   acre,   73 
Seeds,  84 

germination    standards,   89 

grass,  number,  weight,  cost,  and  amount  to  sow  per  acre,  89 

purity  standards,  86 

vitality,  93 
Separator  skim-milk,  conditions  determining  fat  content  of,  252 

formula  for  obtaining  fat  content  of,  252 

per  cent  fat  in,  246 
Separators,  list  of,  242 
Shaw,   Prof.  Thos.,  Heredity,  36 
Sheep,  diseases  of,  49 

determination   of  age   of,   2-j 

fine-wooled,  23 

mutton,  23 

proportions  of  the  various  parts  of,   180 
Shire   horses,   21 
Shorthorn   cattle,   22,    196 
Shropshire  sheep,  23 

Silos,    cylindrical,    area    of    feeding    surface    of,    for    different    sized 
herds,  70 

capacity  of,  69 
Sisson,  L.  P.,  Devon  cattle,  202 
Skim-milk,  composition  of,  239 
per  cent  fat  in,  246 

relation  of  fat  content,  and  speed  of  bowl,  quantity  of  milk 
separated,  and  temperature  of  the  milk,  252 
Skimming  of  milk,   detection  of,  236 

ineflficient,  loss  of  butter  caused  by,  251 
Slope,  rise  per   100  feet,    143 
Smith,    J.    McLain,    Red-polled    cattle,    199 
Smuts  of  cereal  grains,  prevention  of,  107 


434  INDEX. 

Smuts,  oats,  prevention  of,  105 

Soiling  crops   adapted  to    Northern    New   England   states,   67 

time  of  planting   and   feeding,   68 
Soils,  chemical  analyses  of,   124 
Solids   of   milk,   calculation   of,   230 

sp.   gr.   of,  233 
tables  for  obtaining,  from  specific  gravity  and  per  cent  of  fat,  232 
Southdown  sheep,  23 
Specific   gravity   of   butter   milk,   239 
cream,  239 
maple   syrup,   77 
milk,   221 
milk   solids,   233 
potatoes,    76 
skim-milk,   239 
various  substances,  363 
woods,    14 
temperature  correction  tables  for,  of  milk,  228 
Spraying   calendar,    loi 

outfit  for  orchards,   104 
Standard  rations  for  farm  animals,   10,   12 
Standards   for    dairy   products,   234 

of  purity  of  seeds,  86 
Starch   equivalent,   2 
Statistical  tables,  367 

Steam  boiler   and   engine  management,  252 
Steers,  live  and  dressed  weights  of,   178 

proportions   of   the   various   parts   of,    180 
Sterilization  of  milk  and  cream,  256,  259 
Sub-humid    region,    150 
Suffolk   horses,   21 

sheep,   24 
Sugar  in  the  United  States,  production  and  consumption,  390,  391 

imports,    1897-98,   391 
Superintendents  of  farmers'  institutes,   409 
Swine,  25 

diseases  of,  50 

live  weight  and  gains  made,    179 
plague,   suppression   of,   55 
proportions  of  the  various  parts  of,   180 
Tainted    milk,    causes    of,   284 
Tamworth   pigs,   25 
Tanks,  capacity  of,   154 

Temperature-correction  tables  for  specific  gravity  of  milk,  228 
Temperature  of  the  air,  normal  mean,  in   Canada,  372 

the   United  States,  368 
farm  animals,  normal,  28 
Temperatures   injuring   perishable  goods,  71 


Temperatures  injurious  to  plants,  80 

for  preserving  horticultural  products,  81 
Testing  milk  and  other  dairy  products  by  Babcock's  method,  224 
Tests   of   dairy  breeds   at   American   experiment   stations,   209 
Tests  of  dairy  breeds  at  British  Dairy  Farmers'  Assoc,  212 

World's   Columbian   Exposition,   210 
Thermometer    scales,    comparisons    of,    355 
Thoroughbred  horse,  the,  19 
Tile-draining  land,  reasons  for,   139 

pipe  of  main  drain,   size  required,   141 
Tiles,  number  required  per  acre,  table  showing,  140,  141 

of   acres    drained   by,    of   different    diameters   and    per 
cent  grade,  142 
size  required,  140,  141 
Tires,  wide,  effect  of,  162 
Tractive  force  required  for  carriages,    157 

of  horses  at  different  speeds,   158 
effect  of  inclination  on,   159 
surface  on,    160 
Trade   values   of   fertilizing    ingredients,    137 
Tree-planting,    distance   table,    116 
Trees,  number  on  an  acre,  113 

Uuited  States,  agricultural  experiment  stations  in,  408 
imports  and  exports,   1897-1898,  393 
schools   and   colleges,   404 
wages,    1893-1895,    Z7^ 
apiarian   industry,   importance   of,   392 
area  and  population,  367 

areas  of  appropriated,  vacant,  and  reserved  land  in,  373 
cereal    products,    principal,    1850-1890,   381 
comparison   of  leading   industries,   372 

cost  per  acre  of  raising  wheat,  corn,  and  cotton,  1893,  382 
crops,  principal,  381 
dairy  schools,  407  , 

statistics  for  1890,  385 
Department   of  Agriculture,   organization,   400 
educational   institutions,  402 
farming  population,   ^72 
fertilizer  industry,  399 

imports  and  exports,   1896,  399 
number  and  value  of  farm  animals,   1870-1895,  387 
of  farms  in,   and   their  value,  373 
pure-bred  cattle,   1898,  387 
poultry  and   egg  product,    18S0  and   1890,  392 
precipitation,   normal,   371 

product  and  value  of  principal  crops,  1898,  381 
production   of   honey  and   beeswax,   392 
soils,  analyses  of,  124 


436  IKPJB^. 

United  States,  statistics  of  butter,  cheese,  and  condensed-milk  fat' 
lories,  389,   390 
farms,   375 

principal   crops,   1895,   377 
sugar  imports,   1897,  390 
United  States,  sugar  production  and  consumption,   1897,  390,  391 
temperature  of  the  air,  normal  mean,  368 
value   of  principal   farm   products,   376 
wages,   agricultural,    1893- 1895,  376 
wool   products,  390 
Valuation  of  feeding  stuffs,   18 

manures  and  fertilizers,    136 
Value  of  foreign  coins,  365 

lOO^f  —  ^00 

Value  of  for  sp.   gr.   of  milk  from    1.019  to   1.0399  275^ 

s 
Veal,   diagrar.1  of  cuts,    177 
Vegetable  seed  required  per  acre,  73 
Vegetables,   usual   distances   for   planting,  72 
Veterinary   colleges.   American,   list   of,   406 

remedies    and    doses,    51 
Victoria  pigs,  25 

Village-improvement    societies,    constitution   of,    326 
Viscogen,   258 
Vitality  of  seeds,  93 
Wages,    agricultural,    in   the   United   States,    1893-1895,   376 

by  the  week  and  the  day,  table  of,  345 
Wagon   tires,   wide,  effect  of,   162 
Water,   acre-foot   of,    149 

carrying   capacity  of  pipes,   151 

duty  of,   148 

flow   through    straight   pipes,    151 

miner's    inch,    149 

power  required  for  discharge  of>   148 

to  raise,  from  deep  wells,   152 

required  for  cooling  milk  or  cream,  quantity,  260 

right,   148 

second-foot,   149 
Watering  of  milk,  -36 
Weather  Bureau,  the,  explanation  of  flag  signals  adopted  by,  330 

services,  state,  list  of  headquarters  of,  332 
Weeds,  94 

noxious,  table  of,  94 
Weights  and  measures,  349 

conversion  table,  351,  353 
customary  system  of,  349 
metric  system  of,  350 
Weights,  legal,  of  grain,  seeds,  etc.,  362 
Weir   table,   the   California,    154 


INDEX.  437 

Wheat,  cost  per  acre,  o*  raising,  382 

Wheeler,  Prof.  Wm.  P.,  Feeding  and  general  care  of  poultry,  31 

Whey,  composition   of,  239 

to  be  allowed  patrons,  299 
Whitewash,    recipe   for,    163 
Wind,   force   and   velocity   of,    145 
Windmills,    capacity,    146,    153 
Windmills,    economy,    147 

square  feet  and  acres  irrig?^5d  by,   145 
Winslow,  C.   M.,  Ayrshires,   194 
Winter-killed   clover,   replacing,   68 
Wisconsin   curd-test,   284 

Woods,    fu,el    value    and    specific    gravity,    114 
Wool   products   of  the    'Jnited    States,    1898,    390 
World's  Columbian   F.xposition,  results  of  breed  tests  at,  210 
Yield  of  butter  corresponding  to  yield  of  fat,  per  day  and  per  week, 

275a 
Yield  of  butter,   formula  for  calculating,  275 

Cheddar   cheese,  formula  for   calculating,  293 

cheese  from  100  lbs.  of  milk,  294,  296 

fat,  highest  record,  211 

milk  and  fat  by  premium  cows  at  state  fairs,  211 
from  dairy  cows,  208 
of  dairy  breeds,   209,   210,   211,   212 
English    standards    for,    213 
Yields,  average,  per  acre  of  various  crops,  71,  75 
Yorkshire  pigs,  25 


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